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⁹ The passage from Alexander is quoted in Welbon, Guy R., The Buddhist Nirvana and Its Western Interpreters (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968) 19Google Scholar. [Holland, F. W.], “Siam,” Christian Examiner 66 (03 1859) 237Google Scholar. On Buddha as a reformer see Mifller, F. Max, “Buddhism [1862],” Chips from a German Workshop, Vol. 1Google Scholar; Weber, Albrecht, “Uber den Buddhismus;” Koeppen, Karl, Die Religion des Buddha und ihre Enstehung (Berlin: F. Schneider, 1857)Google Scholar; and Foucaux, Phillipe Edouard, Doctrine des bouddhistes sur le nirvana (Paris: Benjamin Duprat, 1864)Google Scholar. The passage about Buddhism as a “civilizing influence” is from , Miiller, “Buddhist Pilgrims,” 243Google Scholar. The passage from Weber is quoted in , Welbon, Buddhist Nirvana, 65Google Scholar.

¹⁰ For an example of one interpreter who continued to present Buddhism as passive see [Holland, F. W.], “Siam,” 237Google Scholar.

¹¹ Traveller, A, “Buddhism—Its Origin, Tenets, and Tendencies,” 380Google Scholar. The passage from Ware is quoted in Howe, Daniel Walker, The Unitarian Conscience: Harvard Moral Philosophy, 1805–1861 (1970; Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988) 96Google Scholar. Gaustad, Edwin Scott, Dissent in American Religion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973) 42Google Scholar. On nineteenth-century agnostic and atheist thinking in the United States see Turner, James, Without God, Without Creed: The Origins of Unbelief in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

¹² Tocqueville, Alexis de, Democracy in America, trans. Reeve, Henry (1835-1840; New York: Vintage, 1945) 2. 104Google Scholar. In their attempts to define modernist culture in America some scholars have been driven to acknowledge the belief in an immutable and substantial self that was connected with the Victorian culture that modernism displaced. Daniel Joseph Singal, for example, used the contrast between Victorian views and modernist conceptions of a dynamic and processive self to help characterize the new cluster of beliefs and values that emerged among many Western intellectuals just before and after World War I (“Towards a Definition of American Modernism,” American Quarterly 39 [Spring 1987] 15)Google Scholar.

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¹⁵ , O. D., “On the Signs and Prospects of the Age,” Christian Examiner 36 (01 1844) 22Google Scholar. Historians have consistently and explicitly linked Victorian culture with these two clusters of beliefs and values. For example, Walter E. Houghton linked British Victorianism with “optimism” and “enthusiasm” (even “moral optimism”;) ( The Victorian Frame of Mind, 1830–1870 [New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957] 27–53Google Scholar, 263–304). Frank Thistlethwaite emphasized the connection between British and American activism in “The Anglo-American World of Humanitarian Endeavor,” in Davis, David Brion, ed., Ante-Bellum Reform (New York: Harper and Row, 1967) 63–81Google Scholar. Henry F. May argued that the Didactic Enlightenment (i.e., the Scottish philosophy of “Common Sense”) was assimilated by the official culture of nineteenth century, and its influence was evident in that culture's emphasis on moral values and progress (The Enlightenment in America [New York: Oxford University Press, 1976] 337–62)Google Scholar. Scholars have discovered an emphasis on optimism in mainstream Protestantism and its leaders during the period. See McLoughlin, William G., The Meaning of Henry WardBeecher: An Essay on the Shifting Values of Mid-Victorian America, 1840–1870 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970)Google Scholar. Frank Luther Mott suggested that a spirit of “optimism” characterized all the leading general magazines between 1850 and 1865 (A History of American Magazines [5 vols.; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1938-1968] 2. 27)Google Scholar. Singal found “steadfast optimism,” a “gospel of progress,” “practicality,” and “paternalistic benevolence” in Southern Victorianism ( Singal, Daniel J., The War Within: From Victorian to Modernist Thought in the South, 1919–1945 [Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982] 23–24)Google Scholar. Finally, Daniel Howe identified “future-orientedness,” “moral seriousness,” and “didacticism” as part of Victorian culture in America. Confidently focused on the future, Howe suggested, Victorian Americans engaged in numerous efforts to moralize and reform ( Howe, Daniel Walker, “Victorian Culture in America,” in Howe, Daniel Walker, ed., Victorian America [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1976] 19–23)Google Scholar.

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²⁵ For further information on the Oriental explorations of these liberals and radicals see Jackson, Carl T., The Oriental Religions and American Thought (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981) 103–40Google Scholar.

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