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³ Of course, for Freud there is no such thing as the holy. Masochism is always a clinical condition, always connected with sexuality, and often, with sadism. See Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Its Discontents (London: Hogarth, 1930)Google Scholar; and Beyond the Pleasure Principle (London: Hogarth, 1922)Google Scholar. See also Bonaparte, Marie, “Some Biopsychical Aspects of Sado-Masochism,” in Hanly, Margaret Ann Fitzpatrick, ed., Essential Papers on Masochism (New York: New York University Press, 1995) 432–52.Google Scholar

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⁶ Scarry, Elaine, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985)Google Scholar. A brief list of articles in religious journals influenced by her work includes: Flynn, Maureen, “The Spiritual Uses of Pain in Spanish Mysticism,” JAAR 64 (1996) 257–78Google Scholar; Tilley, Maureen A., “The Ascetic Body and the (Un)Making of the World of the Martyr,” JAAR 59 (1990) 467–79Google Scholar; Cooey, Paula M., “Experience, Body, and Authority,” HTR 82 (1989) 325–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Boudreau, Kristin, “Pain and the Unmaking of Self in Toni Morrison's Beloved” Contemporary Literature 36 (1995) 447–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smith, Pamela A., “Chronic Pain and Creative Possibility: A Psychological Phenomenon Confronts Theologies of Suffering,” in Tilly, Maureen A. and Ross, Susan A., eds., Broken and Whole: Essays on Religion and the Body (Annual Publication of the College Theology Society 39; New York: University Press of America, 1993).Google Scholar

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⁸ Flynn, “Spiritual Uses of Pain,” 274.

⁹ Lomax, Eric, The Railway Man: A True Story of War, Remembrance, and Forgiveness (New York: Ballantine, 1995) 141–43.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Woolf, Virginia, “On Being Ill,” in idem. The Moment and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1948) 11.Google Scholar

¹¹ Melzack, Ronald, “The McGill Questionnaire: Major Properties and Scoring Methods,” Pain 1 (1975) 277–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Turk, Dennis C. and Melzack, Ronald, Handbook of Pain Assessment (New York: Guilford, 1992).Google Scholar

¹² Scarry, Body in Pain, 15. For Scarry, the result of such metaphorical extensions of experience is the conflation of pain with power, a political observation.

¹³ Kumārasambhava 1.20.

¹⁴ This list represents an extremely brief selection, based mostly on dictionary sources. I have gone over the Cāraka Samhitā, an ancient medical text, and found dozens of additional terms that lack of space precludes listing here.

¹⁵ For pain terms in classical Greek, see Rey, Roslyne, The History of Pain (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995) 12–14.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Akmajian, Adrian, Demers, Richard, and Harnish, Robert, eds., Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990) 41.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Ibid The foundational role of metaphorical semantics has been championed by Lakoff, George and Johnson, Mark, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980)Google Scholar; and Lakoff, George, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁸ This entire topic is discussed in philosophical circles as the question of other minds. Philosophers try to determine how one can know that others have similar mental states, or any at all. See for instance, Wisdom, John, Other Minds (Oxford: Clarendon, 1956). I will avoid this agenda in this article.Google Scholar

¹⁹ See, for instance, Koffka, Kurt, Principles of Gestalt Psychology (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1935) 55–67.Google Scholar

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²¹ Hofstadter, Douglas R., Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern (New York: Basic Books, 1985) 179.Google Scholar

²² Quoted in Ibid, 180.

²³ Ibid, 181.

²⁴ Kohler, Gestalt Psychology, 248–49.

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²⁷ Freud, quoted in Stanley J. Coen, “The Excitement of Sadomasochism,” in Hanly, Essential Papers on Masochism, 383–84.

²⁸ Dostoevsky, Notes From Underground, 86.

²⁹ The reader who wishes to experiment with these ideas, or observe his or her reaction to the appalling “torture of the rat” may look up Octave Mirbeau, Torture Garden (New York: Citadel, 1948) 192–94.Google Scholar

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³⁴ For a convenient summary, see Melzack, Ronald, “Phantom-Limb and the Brain,” in Bromm, Burkhart and Desmedt, John E., eds., Pain and the Brain: From Nociception to Cognition (Advances in Pain Research and Therapy 22; New York: Raven, 1995).Google Scholar

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³⁶ Ibid

³⁷ The studies that document these figures appear in Ronald Melzack, “Phantom-Limb Pain and the Brain,” 79. See also Katz, Joel, “The Role of the Sympathetic Nervous System in Phantom Limb Pain,” Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 10:1 (1996) 1, 153–75.Google Scholar

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³⁹ Melzack's theory has appeared in several publications and studies. Among the clearest statements are: Melzack, , “Phantom-Limb and the Brain”; “Pain: Past, Present and Future,” Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 47 (1993) 615–29; and in the most accessible context idem, “Phantom Limbs,” in Scientific American 261 (April 1992) 120–26.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Melzack, “Phantom-Limb Pain,” 75–76.

⁴¹ Kohler, Wolfgang, The Task of Gestalt Psychology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969) 66.Google Scholar

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⁴³ Ramachandran, V. S. et al., “Touching the Phantom Limb,” Nature 377 (6549) (1995) 489–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also Muraoka, Maomora et al., “Psychosomatic Treatment of Phantom Limb Pain with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Case Report,” Pain 66 (1996) 385–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁴ Ramachandran, “Touching the Phantom Limb,” 490.

⁴⁵ Schultz, Geoffery and Melzack, Ronald, “Visual Hallucinations and Mental State: A Study of 14 Charles Bonnet Syndrome Hallucinators,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 181 (1993) 639–43. Hallucinations are also known to be auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁶ Hallucinations are complex psychological and physiological events. Sensory deprivation is only one cause, even among the deliberate methods of inducing such mental states. See Slade, Peter D. and Bentall, Richard P., Sensory Deception: A Scientific Analysis of Hallucinations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988) 15–16.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ The variable affecting the contents of hallucinations range from psychological factors such as stress and pathology to intelligence and language skills, suggestibility and responsiveness to instructions, environmental stimulation, cultural values, and others (Ibid, 82–109).

⁴⁸ The term “hallucination” is ontologically neutral and refers in this context merely to mental phenomena produced by the overfiring of neuronal output.

⁴⁹ Ratnoff, Oscar D., “The Psychogenic Purpuras: A Review of Autoerythrocyte Sensitization, Autosensitization to DNA, ‘Hysterical’ and Factitial Bleeding, and the Religious Stigmata,” Seminars in Hematology 17 (July 1983) 192–213Google Scholar; on Hunt and Chapman see, Harrison, Ted, Stigmata: A Medieval Mystery in a Modern Age (New York: Penguin, 1994).Google Scholar

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⁵² I have argued elsewhere that this phenomenal simplicity defines the very nature of purity in Hinduism and conforms to the religous purpose of bathing in India. See Glucklich, Ariel, The Sense of Adharma (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) 66–88.Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ It is important to note that systematic, chronic pain does not erase learning; it does not “erase the world” in Scarry's words. What it unmakes is the sense of self, the phenomenal aspect of the body-self template (or schema). This results in the reinforcing of certain learned ideas, for instance inscribing the presence of Jesus, an “other” self, on the body of the self-tormenting mystic whose own sense of self weakens. Suso, Henry, The Exemplar with Two German Sermons (ed. and trans. Tobin, Frank; New York: Paulist Press, 1989) 70.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ McNeill, John Thomas and Gamer, Helena M., eds., Medieval Handbooks of Penance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1938) 223.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ The Sea of Precious Virtues (Bahr al-Fava'id): A Medieval Islamic Mirror for Princes (trans. Mesami, Julie Scott; Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1991) 13Google Scholar; It would be too easy to multiply the number of examples of pain described as sword, penance, bitter medicine, and so forth. The phenomenology of such pain experiences would have to be the subject of another article.

⁵⁷ Schimmel, Annemarie, Pain and Grace: A Study of Two Mystical Writers of Eighteenth-Century Muslim India (Leiden: Brill, 1979) 197.Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Ibid, 59.