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⁴ Paul Ellwood, quoted in The Health Maintenance Concept in a Nutshell, Medical World News, Nov. 6, 1970, p. 32E.

⁵ For a fuller discussion see Robert M. Veatch, Value Freedom in Science and Technology (unpublished dissertation, Harvard University, 1971), especially 173–87.

⁶ I am not suggesting that the philosophical debate over the nature of the “system of evaluation” is closed. One very important and plausible position, known as philosophical empiricism or naturalism, holds that the system of evaluation itself may have an empirical basis, being rooted in “moral facts.” See Perry, Ralph Barton, The General Theory of Value (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1926)Google Scholar ; Broad, C. O., Is Goodness the Name of a Simple, Non-Natural Quality, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 34 (1933–34), 249–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Firth, Roderick, Ethical Absolutism and the Ideal Observer, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 12 (1952), 317–45, for various examples.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷ There are empirical data suggesting that physicians as a group show more anxiety about death than their patients do. See Feifel, Herman, Hanson, Susan, Jones, Robert, and Edwards, Lauri, Physicians Consider Death,Proceedings, 75th Annual Convention, American Psychological Association(1967),201–02.Google Scholar

⁸ Euthanasia, Lord Brock, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 63 (July, 1970), 662.Google Scholar

⁹ See Ross, W. D., The Right and the Good (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930), 21.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Parsons, Talcott, The Social System (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1951), 434Google Scholar. In Parsons' rather obscure language a universalistic pattern of values is one in which “the standard is derived from the validity of a set of existential ideas, on the generality of a normative rule,” while particularistic standards are characterized prinby the “particularity of the cathectic significance of an object or the status of the object in a relational system” (p. 62).

¹¹ Sumner, William Graham, Folkways (New York: Dover, 1959 [1906]).Google Scholar

¹² Parsons, Talcott, Research with Human Subjects and the “Professional Complex,” in Daedalus (Spring, 1969), 329.Google Scholar

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¹⁴ Veatch, Robert M., “Experimental” Pregnancy, Hastings Center Report, I (June, 1971), 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁵ Gaylin, Willard, What's an FBI Poster Doing in a Nice Journal Like That? Hastings Center Report, II (April, 1972), 1–3.Google Scholar

¹⁶ A review of the entire case has been published by Cain, Leonard D. Jr., The AMA and the Gerontologists: Uses and Abuses of “A Profile of the Aging: U.S.A.,” in Ethics, Politics, and Social Research, Sjoberg, Gideon, ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc., 1967), 78–114Google Scholar. The account given here is based on this article. The paper was published as A Profile of the Aging: U.S.A., Geriatrics (July, 1961), 336–42.

¹⁷ A new code of ethics and rules of procedure has recently been developed for the American Sociological Association. The rules took effect Sept. 1, 1971. Their effect remains to be determined.

¹⁸ See Langer, Elinor, Human Experimentation: Cancer Studies at Sloan-Kettering Stir Public Debate on Medical Ethics, Science, 143 (1964), 551–53CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; and Human Experimentation, New York Verdict Affirms Patient's Rights, Science, 151 (1966), 663–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁹ Langer, Human Experimentation, New York Verdict, 663.

²⁰ Chester M. Southam, Alice E. Moore, and Cornelius P. Rhoads, Science (Jan. 25, 1957), 158–60. To my knowledge the ethical implications of experimenting with prisoners even with consent based on a high degree of information was not an issue. On the subject see Beecher, Henry K., Research and the Individual: Human Studies (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1970), especially 69–78.Google Scholar

²¹ General Medical Council: Disciplinary Committee, British Medical Journal (March 13, 1971), 73; (March 20, 1971), 75–80; (March 27, 1971), 81–82; (April 3, 1971), 4–6.

²² Ibid., (March 20, 1971), 80.

²³ The mechanisms discussed here are taken from a list presented by Talcott Parsons in Research with Human Subjects and the “Professional Complex,” Daedalus (Spring, 1969), 325–60.