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Mark and His Readers: The Son of God among Jews*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 June 2011

Adela Yarbro Collins
Adela Yarbro Collins
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
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Extract

First, a few remarks about the audience of the Gospel according to Mark. This study is based on the premise that Mark was read aloud in gatherings of Christians in the late first and early second centuries that were not necessarily liturgical in a narrow sense. Further, those who listened were not all equally committed to the Christian faith and probably assimilated and interpreted the instruction that they received in various ways. Some in the audience, even if they were familiar with the Pauline understanding of Jesus as the Son of God, may have preferred to de-fine Jesus' divine sonship in another, more traditionally Jewish way, to be discussed below. Finally, even if the Gospel was written primarily for insiders, it is likely that copies were available to interested or critical outsiders. Celsus's knowl-edge of the Gospels shows that this happened at least by the second half of the second century.

Type
Research Articles
Information
Harvard Theological Review , Volume 92 , Issue 4 , October 1999 , pp. 393 - 408
Copyright
Copyright © President and Fellows of Harvard College 1999

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References

1 Harry Y. Gamble, in his otherwise excellent book, seems to project a later liturgical reading into the earlier period; idem, Books and Readers in the Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), ch. 5, “The Uses of Early Christian Books,” 203–41Google Scholar.

2 On the mixed character of the audience, see Aune, David E., The New Testament in Its Literary Environment (Library of Early Christianity; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987) 59–60Google Scholar.

3 For the evidence, see Gamble, , Books and Readers, 103, 286 n. 70Google Scholar.

4 Fitzmyer, Joseph A., “4Q246: The ‘Son of God’ Document from Qumran,” Biblica 74 (1993) 153–74, esp. 170-74Google Scholar.

5 Horbury, William, Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM, 1998) 23, 113.Google Scholar On p. 113 Horbury cites 2 Sam 7:14; 4Q174 (Florilegium) line 11; Ps 89:26-27 and especially Ps 2:7. In an endnote to that passage, he also cites Ps. Sol. 17.23-24; Ps 110; 1 Esdr 13:6-7, 32, 35-38, 52; and lQSa=lQ28 ii 11-12 in n. 13 on p. 195.

6 Collins, Adela Yarbro, “Establishing the Text: Mark 1:1,” in Fornberg, Tord and Hellholm, David, eds., Texts and Contexts: Biblical Texts in Their Textual and Situational Contexts: Essays in Honor of Lars Hartman (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1995) 111–27Google Scholar.

7 See the discussion in Marcus, Joel, The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox, 1992) 50–53Google Scholar.

8 See also Ps 89:26-27.

9 The translation is from Kraus, Hans-Joachim, Psalms 60–150: A Commentary (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1989) 344Google Scholar ; for discussion see p. 350.

10 Mowinckel, S., He That Cometh (1951; reprinted ET New York: Abingdon, 1955) 28–29Google Scholar.

11 Mowinckel, , He That Cometh, 36Google Scholar.

12 See McCarter, P. Kyle Jr , II Samuel (AB 9; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1984) 207Google Scholar.

13 McCarter, , II Samuel, 207Google Scholar.

14 For the translation of these verses, see McCarter, II Samuel, 293. McCarter concludes that Solomon was the king's private name and Jedidiah his throne name; Ibid., 303.

15 Horbury, , Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ, 95–96Google Scholar.

16 The work as a whole has been published: Alexander, Gerhard, ed., Apologie oder Schutzschrift fiir die vernunftigen Verehrer Gottes (2 vols.; Frankfurt am Main: Insel Verlag, 1972); for an English translation of the fragments published by Lessing, with an introduction and notes, seeGoogle ScholarTalbert, Charles H., ed., Reimarus: Fragments (Lives of Jesus series; 1970; reprinted Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1985).Google Scholar;

17 Talbert, , Reimarus, 76–77Google Scholar.

18 Exod 4:22-23; Deut 1:31; Jer 31:9, 20; Wis 2:10, 12-13, 17, 18, 20; Talbert, , Reimarus, 77–78Google Scholar.

19 Wis 2:10 (RSV).

20 άλαζονεύεται Πατέρα θεόν; Wis 2:16; see also 14:3.

21 See Schweizer, Eduard, “ύίός, υίοθεσία, C.I.3,” Philo, TDNT 8 (1972) 355–56Google Scholar.

22 Sir 22:27-23:6; citations from 23:1, 4.

23 4Q371-72; the translation is from Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (New York: Allen Lane/Penguin, 1997) 530.Google Scholar See also 1QH 17:35; 3 Mace. 6.3, 8; Tob 13:4. For further references and discussion, see D'Angelo, Mary Rose, “Theology in Mark and Q: Abba and ‘Father’ in Context,” HTR 85 (1992) 149–74, esp. 151-56Google Scholar.

24 2 Kgs 2:9, 15; compare 1 Kgs 19:16.

25 See the discussion and the literature cited in Seitz, Christopher R., “How Is the Prophet Isaiah Present in the Latter Half of the Book? The Logic of Chapters 40-66 within the Book of Isaiah,” JBL 115 (1996) 219–40, esp. 238-39Google Scholar.

26 A fragmentary text from Qumran (4Q521) refers to a messiah, alludes to Isa 61:1, and states that the Spirit of God will hover over the poor; the messianic figure in this text may be the eschatological prophet. See Collins, John J., The Scepter and the Star: The Messiahs of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Other Ancient Literature (New York: Doubleday, 1995) 117–22Google Scholar.

27 On the account of Jesus' baptism in Mark as his installation into the prophetic office, see Baltzer, Klaus, Die Biographie der Propheten (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1975) 185–86Google Scholar.

28 1 Kgs 22:24.

29 1 QS 9:10-11.

30 4QpIsaa; for text, translation, and notes, see Horgan, Maurya P., Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of Biblical Books (CBQMS 8; Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1979) 70–86.Google ScholarPs. Sol. 17.21-24 combines Isa 11:4 and Ps 2:9 in describing the activity of the expected Davidic messiah.

31 Collins, , Scepter and the Star, 57–58Google Scholar.

32 The translation is from Vermes, Complete Dead Sea Scrolls, 467.

33 Ps. Sol. 17.37; the translation is by Wright, R. B., “Psalms of Solomon,” in OTP 2. 639–70Google Scholar ; citation from 668.

34 See also the Similitudes of I Enoch, in which the messiah is described with language taken from Isa 11:2-4. I Enoch 49.3, alluding to Isa 11:3, speaks about the spirit of righteousness dwelling in the Chosen One; I Enoch 62.2 incorporates two ideas from Isa 11:2-4, that the spirit of righteousness is poured out upon the Chosen One (the Spirit of the Lord rests upon the shoot of the stump of Jesse) and that sinners are slain by the word of his mouth (Jesse's descendant judges in righteousness, smites the earth with the rod of his mouth, and slays the wicked according to Isa 11:4). For further discussion, see Walck, Leslie W., “The Son of Man in Matthew and the Similitudes of Enoch” (Ph.D. diss., University of Notre Dame, 1999) 168–70Google Scholar.

35 Gen 6:1-4; 1 Enoch 6-11.

36 I Enoch 15.3-4.

17 Jub. 7.21; the translation is from The Book of Jubilees (CSCO 511, Scriptores aethiopici 88; trans. VanderKam, James C.; Louvain: Peeters, 1989) 47Google Scholar.

38 Jub. 10.1; the translation is by VanderKam, , Book of Jubilees, 58.Google Scholar See also the Gospel of Philip from Nag Hammadi, which speaks of “male spirits that have sexual intercourse with souls who conduct their lives within a female shape, and female ones that mingle promiscuously with those within a male shape” (65. 1-8; the translation is from Layton, Bentley, ed., The Gnostic Scriptures [trans. Layton, Bentley; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1987] 340).Google Scholar These are the same as, or at least included among, the “unclean spirits” mentioned a little further on in the text: “For if they possessed the holy spirit, no unclean spirit could attach itself to them” (66. 2-4; ibid). There is also a spell for driving out demons that shows Jewish influence and includes the words “until you drive away this unclean daimon Satan (άκάθαρτος δαίμων ∑ατανάς), who is in him;” the translation is by Meyer, M. W. in Betz, Hans Dieter, ed., The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation Including the Demotic Spells (2d ed.; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) 62Google Scholar.

39 For example, “But now the giants who were born from (the union of) the spirits and the flesh shall be called evil spirits upon the earth” (I Enoch 15.8; the translation is modified from M. A. Knibb, “I Enoch” in AOT, 204).

40 According to the Testament of Solomon, a great number and variety of demons were forced by Solomon to assist in the building of the Temple; see also Ginzberg, Louis, The Legends of the Jews (6 vols; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1909-1925) 4. 150–54Google Scholar ; 6. 292-93, nn. 54-56. According to the Sefer Noah 150-60, Solomon learned how to master demons from a heavenly book that was originally given to Noah by God through Raphael; see Ginzberg, , Legends of the Jews 1. 157Google Scholar ; 6. 177, n. 23. See also Ibid., 4. 142, 144, 149, 175; 6. 289, n. 38; 291, n. 49; 296-97, n. 69.

41 Test. Sol. 5.5; 20.1-21. See also b. Hag. 16a (a female demon states that she heard a statement in heaven regarding Hanina ben Dosa) and b. Git. 68a (Asmodeus predicts the fate of a bride and groom).

42 Test. Sol. 20.12; text from McCown, Testament of Solomon, 62; translation is from Duling, OTP, 1. 983.

43 The ancient of days in Dan 7:9 and the angel in Matt 28:3 have clothing white as snow (compare Mark 16:5; John 20:12; Acts 1:10; Rev 4:4); angels are clothed in clean or pure white linen according to Rev 15:6; 19:14; the two “men” (angels) in Luke 24:4 have shining apparel.

44 Marcus, , Way of the Lord, 81Google Scholar.

45 See the literature cited in Marcus, , Way of the Lord, 81–82, n. 4Google Scholar.

46 Deut 18:18-19 is cited in the Testimonia or Messianic Anthology (4Q175) lines 5-8; compare CD 6:11. For discussion see Collins, Scepter and the Star, 112-14, 116-17.

47 See Mal 3:23-24 (4:5-6 RSV).

48 According to Rev 3:4, those who conquer will walk, wearing white garments, with the risen Jesus; see also 6:11; 7:9, 13. According to Dan 12:3, when the righteous rise from the dead, they will shine like the brightness of the firmament; compare Matt 13:43.

49 Josephus Ant. 9.28; see also Collins, Adela Yarbro, The Beginning of the Gospel: Probings of Mark in Context (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992) 142–43Google Scholar.

50 See also Marcus, , Way of the Lord, 87–90Google Scholar.

51 Ps. Sol. 17.21; 1QS 9:11; CD 12:23-13:1; 14:19; 19:10-11; 20:1.

52 Ps. Sol. 17.26-27; the translation is by Wright, , “Psalms of Solomon,” OTP 667.Google Scholar See also the discussion in Marcus, , Way of the Lord, 77–79Google Scholar.

53 Florilegium (4Q 174) 1:10-13; the translation is by Vermes, , Complete Dead Sea Scrolls, 494Google Scholar.

54 Marcus, Compare, Way of the Lord, 78Google Scholar.

55 The translation is from Collins, , Scepter and the Star, 155Google Scholar.

56 See, for example, Dan 11:36; for discussion and references to further literature, see Collins, , Scepter and the Star, 156–57Google Scholar ; see also Fitzmyer, , “4Q246: The ‘Son of God’ Document from Qumran,” 167–69Google Scholar.

57 Collins, , Scepter and the Star, 158Google Scholar.

58 The translation is by Collins, , Scepter and the Star, 155Google Scholar ; see the argument for an individual judge on 158-59.

59 1QSa (lQ28a) 2:11-12.

60 Horbury, , Jewish Messianism and the Cult of Christ, 98Google Scholar.

61 Hans-Jörg Steichele has suggested that Jews of the late Second Temple period avoided the title “Son of God” out of concern that it would be misunderstood in a physical sense; idem, Der Leidende Sohn Gottes (Miinchener Universitäts-Schriften; Regensburg: Pustet, 1980) 143-44. Wilhelm Bousset gave Gustaf Dalman (Die Worte Jesu mit Berücksichtigung des nachkanonischen jüdischen Schrifttums und der aramäischen Sprache [Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1898] 219) credit for making the observation that the title νíòß θεoû for the messiah is hardly attested in the “later Jewish literature;” Bousset, Wilhelm, Kyrios Chrislos: Geschichte des Christusglaubens von den Anfängen des Christentums bis Irenaeus (4th ed. [= reprint of 2d rev. ed.]; FRLANT n.f. 4; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1921 [= 1935]) 53Google Scholar.

62 See Segal, Alan F., Two Powers in Heaven: Early Rabbinic Reports about Christianity and Gnosticism (Leiden: Brill, 1977)Google Scholar.

63 Mark 15:6-15.

64 Mark 15:9, 12.

65 Mark 15:16-20.

66 Mark 15:26.

67 Mark 15:32.

68 Mark 15:39; although the expression νíòß θεoû (“the son of God”) is anarthrous, it may still be taken as definite, because definite predicate nouns that precede the verb usually lack the article; see Turner, Nigel, Syntax (A Grammar of New Testament Greek, vol. 3, ed. Moulten, John H.; 1908; reprinted Edinburgh: T.& T. Clark, 1963) 183, who cite E. C. ColwellGoogle Scholar.

69 See n. * above.

70 Marcus, , Way of the Lord, 54–55Google Scholar , n. 31, citing Ambrozic.

71 Mark 12:9.

72 Juel, Donald (Messiah and Temple: The Trial of Jesus in the Gospel of Mark [SBLDS 31; Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1973])Google Scholar and Matera, Frank (The Kingship of Jesus: Composition and Theology in Mark 15 [SBLDS 66; Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1982])Google Scholar interpret the title “Son of God” in Mark in terms of “royal messianism.” See the discussion in Marcus, , Way of the Lord, 142Google Scholar.

73 That Jesus' death benefits others is made clear in Mark 10:45 and 14:24.

74 Mark 8:38; 13:24-27; 14:62.

75 Compare Mark 12:9 with 13:14-20, an account reminiscent of Genesis 19.

76 Mark 9:42-48 also alludes to the individual judgment of the followers of Jesus.

77 I Enoch 62.14; see also 71.16-17.

78 Mark 12:36, with its citation of Ps 110:1, implies that Jesus will sit at the right hand of God after his death and resurrection; 14:62 cites both Ps 110:1 and Dan 7:13.