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³ Brown, Peter, The Making of Late Antiquity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978) 75.Google Scholar

⁴ Among recent studies see esp. Beaujeu, Jean, La religion romaine à l'apogée de l'empire (Paris: Belles Lettres, 1955).Google Scholar

⁵ Cf. Tertullian Apol. 4.

⁶ For discussion, see n. 8.

⁷ See, e.g., MacMullen, Ramsay, Enemies of the Roman Order (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁸ Idem, “The Roman Concept of the Robber-Pretender,” Revue internationale des droits de l'antiquité 3 (1983) 221–26.Google Scholar

⁹ See also 1 Apol. 5; Musurillo, Herbert A., The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs: Acta Alexandrinorum (Oxford: Clarendon, 1954) 237Google Scholar: “The death of Socrates, especially as idealized by Plato, was a powerful influence in the development of death as a heroic ideal.”

¹⁰ Beaujeu, Religion, 73.

¹¹ Ibid., 202.

¹² Ibid., 325.

¹³ Ibid., 327.

¹⁴ MacMullen, Enemies of the Roman Order, 19, 36.

¹⁵ For discussion, see Beaujeu, Religion, 242–46.

¹⁶ Clement of Alexandria Prot. logos 2, 33; Tatian Or. Graec. 8, 16–17.

¹⁷ Suetonius, The Caesars, Tiberius, 44.

¹⁸ For a fine discussion, see Champlin, Edward, Fronto and Antonine Rome (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980) 106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁹ Birley, Anthony, Marcus Aurelius (Boston: Little, Brown, 1966) 122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁰ Acts of the Martyr Justin and His Companions, B, 2, in Herbert, Musurillo, ed., The Acts of the Christian Martyrs (Oxford: Clarendon, 1972) 48.Google Scholar

²¹ Ibid., 52.

²² Brunt, P. A., “Marcus Aurelius and the Christians,” in Carl, Deroux, ed., Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History (Brussels: Latomus, 1979–1983) 1. 516.Google Scholar

²³ Ibid., 516–17.

²⁴ Price, S. R. F., Rituals and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984) passim.Google Scholar

²⁵ Price's critique (ibid.) could well be applied to the much-debated—and equally anachronistic—question of whether Paul in Romans 13:5 refers to human or divine authorities. I believe he has both in mind simultaneously, since he sees them as wholly interconnected. For a review of the discussion, and a recent, typically one-sided analysis, see Carr, Wesley, Angels and Principalities: The Background, Meaning, and Development of the Pauline Phrase HAI ARCHAI KAI HAI EXOUSIAI (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁶ Hammond, Antonine Monarchy, 211. Hammond goes on to comment, “This anomaly is significant not so much of a deliberate change in policy as of the increasing hostility of the populace which forced the government to act … and to the feeling … which became so prominent in the third century, namely, that all men of good will should rally to the authorized cults to secure the favor of the gods who had watched over Rome's rise, but who had, through men's neglect, been led to turn their eyes away from her misfortune.”

²⁷ See Frend's, W. H. C. masterful treatment of this practice and the whole subject of persecution, in Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (New York: New York University Press, 1967) 5.Google Scholar

²⁸ Tatian Or. Graec. 16.

²⁹ A. D. Nock, “Religious Developments from the Close of the Republic to the Death of Nero,” CAH 489 n. 2; cited by Bowersock, “Greek Intellectuals,” 189.

³⁰ See, e.g., Lutz, Cora E., Musonius Rufus: The Roman Socrates (YCS 10; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947) 1–147Google Scholar; Veyne, P., “La famille et l'amour sous le Haut-Empire romain,” Annales 33 (1978) 35–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³¹ de Ste. Croix, G. E. M., The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981) 368.Google Scholar

³² Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. 3. Emphasis mine.

³³ Hammond notes in The Antonine Monarchy, 211.

³⁴ Lewis, Naphtali, Life in Egypt Under Roman Rule (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983) 207.Google Scholar

³⁵ De Ste. Croix, Class Struggle, 435.

³⁶ Ibid., 439.

³⁷ See, e.g., Tertullian Apol. 10; Minucius Felix Oct. 29.

³⁸ De Ste. Croix, Class Struggle, 368.