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²³ For an argument emphasizing why it still makes sense to engage politically with al-Qaeda see Mohammad-Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou, ‘Non-Linearity of Engagement: Transnational Armed Groups, International Law and the Conflict between Al Qaeda and the United States’, Policy Brief of the Harvard University Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research, July 2005.Google Scholar

²⁴ Faisal Devji, Landscapes of the Jihad: Militancy, Morality, Modernity, Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press 2005.Google Scholar

²⁵ See Behnke, Andreas Terrorising the Political: 9/11 Within the Context of the Globalisation of Violence’, Millennium, 33: 2 (2004), pp. 279–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarAlternatively, if the analysis focuses on the individual, then it is either an eschatological issue or a problem for psychoanalysts.

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³⁰ Interestingly, some security officials in the UK estimate that the activities of some high-profile secular Muslim cause such grief among the more traditional sections of the Muslim community that they become in fact a component of the process of radicalization in the community.Google Scholar

³¹ As Roy noted in the case of the Taliban regime, this was less a case of a totalitarian state than a case of minimal state with a fixation on specific features of the Sharia – which came to embody very much the whole of Taliban rule in the country. Roy, Globalized Islam.Google Scholar

³² Elsewhere I suggested that, functionally, global jihadism amounts to a form of violence directed against a state, its citizens and its assets, perpetrated by citizens of the same or another state on behalf of Muslim communities from any state in the world and who are directly or indirectly oppressed by the state targeted by this violence. Volpi, Frédéric, ‘Strategies for Regional Cooperation in the Mediterranean: Rethinking the Parameters of the Debate’, Mediterranean Politics, 11: 2 (2006), pp. 119–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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³⁹ The debate about the wearing of the ‘Islamic veil’ in France in 2004 and elsewhere in Europe more recently is the most visible illustration of this process.Google Scholar

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⁴⁷ This has been a constant theme in the declarations of the MCB. See their press releases at http://www.mcb.org.uk/media/speech.php.Google Scholar

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⁴⁹ For overviews of the key thinkers and traditions see David Cook, Understanding Jihad, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2005; M. Bonner, Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2006.Google Scholar