¹ ‘Global constitutionalisation’ is the process of constitutionalising international law and governance; ‘global constitutionalism’ denotes the theories of constitutionalism for global governance.

² Franck, TM, The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990);Google Scholar older versions of constitutionalism such as Verdross’ alongside contemporary discussions also contribute to this development. A O’Donoghue, ‘Alfred Verdross and the Contemporary Constitutionalization Debate’ (2012) 32 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 799.

³ Shklar, J, ‘The Political Theory of Utopia: From Melancholy to Nostalgia’ (1965) 94 Daedalus 367.Google Scholar

⁴ For a discussion on relationship between literature and political treatise see Levitas, R, The Concept of Utopia (Peter Lang, Oxford, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar xiii. For a discussion of the relationship between utopia and genocide, see Weitz, ED, A Century of Genocide: Utopias of Race and Nation (updated edn, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2015).Google Scholar

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⁷ Haraway, D, How Like a Leaf: An Interview with Thyrza Nichols Goodeve (Routledge, Abingdon, 2000) 120.Google Scholar

⁸ Melzer, P, Alien Constructions: Science Fiction and Feminist Thought (University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, 2006) 9 (emphasis in the original).Google Scholar

⁹ Ibid 11.

¹⁰ See W Imarisha, ‘Introduction’ in W Imarisha and am brown (eds), Octavia’s Brood: Science Fiction Stories from Social Justice Movements (AK Press, Chico, CA, 2015) 3; K Williams, ‘Demanding the Impossible: Walidah Imarisha Talks About Science Fiction and Social Change’ (bitchmedia 13 April 2015) available at <https:// www.bitchmedia.org/post/demanding-the-impossible-walidah-imarisha-talks-about-science-fiction-and-social-change>.

¹¹ SW Potts and OE Butler, ‘“We Keep Playing the Same Record”: A Conversation with Octavia E Butler’ (1996) 23(3) Science Fiction Studies 331, 336 (Octavia E Butler).

¹² A Hairston, ‘Octavia Butler – Praise Song to a Prophetic Artist’ in Larbalestier, J (ed), Daughters of Earth: Feminist Science Fiction in the Twentieth Century (Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT, 2006) 287, 295;Google Scholar Miller, J, ‘Post-Apocalyptic Hoping: Octavia Butler’s Dystopian/Utopian Vision’ (1998) 25(2) Science Fiction Studies 336, 336.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ E.g. Baines, B, Erez, D Barak and Kahana, T (eds), Feminist Constitutionalism: Global Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012);CrossRefGoogle Scholar H Charlesworth, ‘Alienating Oscar? Feminist Analysis of International Law’ in Dallmeyer, DG (ed), Reconceiving Reality: Women and International Law (American Society of International Law, Washington, DC, 1993) 1;Google Scholar Charlesworth, H and Chinkin, C, ‘The Gender of Jus Cogens’ (1993) 15 Human Rights Quarterly 63;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Charlesworth, H, Chinkin, C and Wright, S, ‘Feminist Approaches to International Law’ (1991) 85(4) The American Journal of International Law 613;CrossRefGoogle Scholar MacKinnon, C, Towards a Feminist Theory of the State (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1989).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Crenshaw, K, On Intersectionality: Essential Writings (New Press, New York City, NY, 2019).Google Scholar In international law see AN Davis, ‘Intersectionality and International Law: Recognizing Complex Identities on the Global Stage’ (2015) 28 Harvard Human Rights Journal 205.

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¹⁹ Suvin, D, Positions and Presuppositions in Science Fiction (Springer, New York City, NY, 1998) 71–2; see Fitting (n 5) 135.Google Scholar

²⁰ Suvin (n 19) 37.

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²³ Levitas (n 4) 221.

²⁴ S Baggesen, ‘Utopian and Dystopian Pessimism: Le Guin’s ‘‘The Word for World Is Forest’’ and Tiptree’s ‘‘We Who Stole the Dream’’’ (1987) 14(1) Science Fiction Studies 34, 41.

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²⁸ Now published as OE Butler, Lilith’s Brood (Warner Books, New York City, NY, 2000).

²⁹ Melzer (n 8) 8.

³⁰ Ibid 8.

³¹ NK Jemisin has said that the Trilogy in some ways is a response to Ursula K le Guin’s ‘The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas’ (1973) writ large, see <https://twitter.com/nkjemisin/status/955935985199714304>.

³² UK Le Guin, ‘A War Without End’ from Essays on More’s Utopia (Verso, London, 2016) available at <https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/3585-a-war-without-end-by-ursula-k-le-guin>.

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³⁸ K Crenshaw, ‘Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics’ (1989) 1 University of Chicago Legal Forum 139.

³⁹ CP Gilman, Herland ([1915] Vintage, New York City, NY, 2015) 3.

⁴⁰ Ibid 71.

⁴¹ ‘As for Ellador: Suppose you come to a strange land and find it pleasant enough – just a little more than ordinarily pleasant – and then you find rich farmland, and then gardens, gorgeous gardens, and then palaces full or rare and curious treasures – incalculable, inexhaustible, and then – mountains – like the Himalayas, and then the sea’ (Herland (n 39) 119); ‘Celis was a blue-and-gold-and-rose person; Alima, black-and-white-and-red, a blazing beauty. Ellador was brown: hair dark and soft, like a seal coat; clear brown skin with a healthy red in it; brown eyes – all the way from topaz to black velvet they seemed to range – splendid girls, all of them’ (Herland (n 39) 121); see also Herland (n 39) 71.

⁴² For a discussion see, DD Knight, ‘Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Shadow of Racism’ (2000) 32(2) American Literary Realism 159, 161.

⁴³ Hairston (n 12) 287, 292.

⁴⁴ See Donovan, J, Feminist Theory, Fourth Edition: The Intellectual Traditions (Continuum International Publishing Group, New York, NY, 2012) 155.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ bell hooks, Ain’t I a Woman (South End Press, Boston, MA, 1981) 79; Donovan (n 44) 155.

⁴⁶ A Davis, ‘Reflections on the Black Woman’s Role in the Community of Slaves’ (1972) 13(1/2) The Massachusetts Review 81, 84; Donovan (n 44) 155.

⁴⁷ See C Miéville, ‘Introduction’, Thomas More’s Utopia (Verso, London, 2016) i, insertion of *** by article writers.

⁴⁸ Weitz (n 4).

⁴⁹ Miéville (n 47) ii.

⁵⁰ See e.g. O’Donoghue, A, Constitutionalism in Global Constitutionalisation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2014) 54–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵¹ MG Dietz, ‘Context Is All: Feminism and Theories of Citizenship’ (1987) 116 Daedalus 1, 2–6.

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⁵³ For a discussion on it being exhausted see, UK Preuss, ‘Constitutional Powermaking for the New Polity: Some Deliberations on the Relations between Constituent Power and the Constitution’ (1992) 14 Cardozo Law Review 639; For a discussion on it being non-exhaustible see Locke, J, Two Treatises of Government (Laslett, P ed, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998) Ch II, section 222. See alsoGoogle Scholar Galligan, DJ, ‘The Paradox of Constitutionalism or the Potential of Constitutional Theory’ (2008) 28(2) Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 343, 358;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Colón-Ríos, JI, Weak Constitutionalism: Democratic Legitimacy and the Question of Constituent Power (Routledge, Abingdon, 2012) 8;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Kalyvas, A, ‘Popular Sovereignty, Democracy, and the Constituent Power’ (2005) 12(2) Constellations 223, 227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁵⁷ Johns (n 26) 186.

⁵⁸ T More, Utopia (Verso, London, 2016) 1–2

⁵⁹ Herland (n 39) 72–3.

⁶⁰ Ibid 72.

⁶¹ Ibid 72–3.

⁶² Johns (n 26) 191.

⁶³ Gearhart, SM, The Wanderground (The Women’s Press, London, 1985) 24.Google Scholar

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⁶⁶ Love (n 64) 21 cited in McBean (n 65) 126.

⁶⁷ Le Guin, UK, The Left Hand of Darkness (Virgo, London, 1997) 193.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Ibid 39.

⁶⁹ Jemisin, NK, The Fifth Season (Orbit, London, 2015).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Baxi, U, ‘Constitutionalism as a Site of State-Formative Practices’ (2000) 21(4) Cardozo Law Review 1183, 1209;Google Scholar Oklopcic, Z, ‘The South of Western Constitutionalism: A Map Ahead of a Journey’ (2016) 37(11) Third World Quarterly 2080.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² Herland (n 39) 74.

⁷³ Ibid 90.

⁷⁴ Ibid 93.

⁷⁵ See The Wanderground (n 63) 20.

⁷⁶ Burwell, J, Notes on Nowhere: Feminism, Utopian Logic, and Social Transformation (University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN, 1997) 75.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Ibid 75 citing The Wanderground (n 63) 122.

⁷⁸ See ibid 81; C Ferns, Narrating Utopia Ideology, Gender, Form in Utopian Literature (Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 1999) 194.

⁷⁹ Johns (n 26) 186.

⁸⁰ The Wanderground (n 63) 24.

⁸¹ Ibid 24.

⁸² Ibid 24.

⁸³ Johns (n 26) 186.

⁸⁴ For a discussion see, KY Shin, ‘Governance’ in L Disch and M Hawkesworth (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2018) 304, 310.

⁸⁵ Ibid.

⁸⁶ See A O’Donoghue, ‘Paris Peace Conference 1919’ in E Rackley and R Auchmuty (eds), Women’s Legal Landmarks (Bloomsbury, London, 2018) 125; C O’Rourke, ‘‘‘Walk[ing] the Halls of Power’’? Understanding Women’s Participation in International Peace and Security’ (2014) 15 Melbourne Journal of International Law 128; Addams, J, Peace and Bread in a Time of War (Hail & Co, 1922) 1;Google Scholar Rupp, LJ, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1997).Google Scholar

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⁸⁹ Ferns (n 78) 197

⁹⁰ The Wanderground (n 63) 129

⁹¹ Ferns (n 78) 197

⁹² The Power (n 87) 330.

⁹³ Ibid 325.

⁹⁴ Ibid 330.

⁹⁵ Franck, TM, Fairness in International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995) 10–12;Google Scholar Benhabib, S, Another Cosmopolitanism (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006) 72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁹⁷ B Baines, ‘Gender and Constitution: Is Constitutionalism Bad for Intersectional Feminists?’ (2009) 28 Penn State International Law Review 427, 431; S Moller Okin, Women in Western Political Thought (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1979) 247.

⁹⁸ ER Helford, ‘The Future of Political Community: Race, Ethnicity, and Class Privilege in Novels by Piercy, Gomez, and Misha’ (2001) 12(2) Utopian Studies 124, 132.

⁹⁹ SM Morris, ‘Black Girls Are from the Future: Afrofuturist Feminism in Octavia E. Butler’s Fledgling’ (2012) 40(3) Women’s Studies Quarterly 146, 156.

¹⁰⁰ For a discussion on Afrofuturist Feminism see, ibid 152–5.

¹⁰¹ See D Ferreira da Silva, ‘Toward a Black Feminist Poethics: The Quest(ion) of Blackness Toward the End of the World’ (2014) 44(2) The Black Scholar 81, 93. See also GJ Hampton, ‘Vampires and Utopia: Reading Racial and Gender Politics in the Fiction of Octavia Butler’ (2008) 51(1) CLA Journal 74, 77.

¹⁰² Hampton (n 101) 77.

¹⁰³ LF Stone, ‘The Conquest of Gola’ (Wonder Stories 1931, reprinted in J Larbalestier (ed), Daughters of Earth: Feminist Science Fiction in the Twentieth Century (Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT, 2006) 36, 37. See also in SS Tepper’s The Gate to Women’s Country, Beneda, a friend of Stavia’s, comforts Stavia saying: “We grieve, Stavia. We grieve.” (SS Tepper, The Gate to Women’s Country (Bantam, New York, NY, 1989) 6)

¹⁰⁴ See Attebery, B, ‘The Conquest of Gernsback: Leslie F Stone and the Subversion of Science Fiction Tropes’ in Larbalestier, J (ed), Daughters of Earth: Feminist Science Fiction in the Twentieth Century (Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT, 2006) 50, 52.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ See ibid 51.

¹⁰⁶ Johns (n 26) 184.

¹⁰⁷ Russ, J, To Write Like a Woman: Essays in Feminism and Science Fiction (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1995) 136.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ R Silberglied, ‘Women, Utopia, and Narrative: Toward a Postmodern Feminist Citizenship’ (1997) 12(4) Hypatia 156, 161.

¹⁰⁹ Russ, J, The Female Man (Orion Publishing Group, London, 2010) 31 and 80.Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ For a discussion see Miller (n 12) 343.

¹¹¹ See Lewis, CS, The Four Loves (Harper Collins, London, 2010) 111.Google Scholar

¹¹² Indeed, Perkins Gilman draws a distinction between this ‘love’ and patriotism; they ‘loved one another with a practically universal affection, rising to exquisite and unbroken friendships and broadening a devotion to their country and people for which our word patriotism is no definition at all’ (Herland (n 39) 125–6).

¹¹³ B Douglas, ‘What’s Love Got to Do with It?’ (Centre for Catholic Social Thought and Practice, March 2017) available at <http://ccstp.org.uk/articles/2017/3/21/whats-love-got-to-do-with-it>.

¹¹⁴ Zaki (n 35) 243.

¹¹⁵ Miller (n 12) 346.

¹¹⁶ Ibid.

¹¹⁷ OE Butler, Adulthood Rites (Popular Library, New York, NY, 1988) 90 cited in ibid 346–7.

¹¹⁸ Miller (n 12) 347.

¹¹⁹ For example, A Peters, ‘Dual Democracy’ in J Klabbers, A Peters and G Ulfstein (eds), The Constitutionalization of International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009) 303; JHH Weiler, ‘The Geology of International Law – Governance, Democracy and Legitimacy’ (2004) 64 Zaöerv 547. See in contrast, J Klabbers, ‘Setting the Scene’ in J Klabbers, A Peters and G Ulfstein (eds), The Constitutionalization of International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009) 23.

¹²⁰ See for example, A Peters, ‘Membership in the Global Constitutional Community’ in J Klabbers, A Peters and G Ulfstein (eds), The Constitutionalization of International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009) 153. For a discussion on all-affected and all-subjected, see N Fraser, ‘Transnational Public Sphere: Transnationalizing the Public Sphere: On the Legitimacy and Efficacy of Public Opinion in a post-Westphalian World’ (2007) 24 Theory, Culture & Society 7, 21.

¹²¹ Telepathy is often found in feminist utopias and can represent an intuitive understanding of each other. The women in The Wanderground can ‘worry-read’, see The Wanderground (n 63) 2. See also OE Butler, The Mind of My Mind (1977); OE Butler, Dawn (1987).

¹²² Anghie, A, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005) 13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹²³ Ibid 13; see also Becker Lorca, A, Mestizo International Law: A Global Intellectual History 1842–1933 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015).Google Scholar

¹²⁴ Anghie (n 122) 13.

¹²⁵ In William Morris’ News from Nowhere (1890), there are no laws.

¹²⁶ O’Donoghue and Houghton (n 36).

¹²⁷ E Plonowska Ziarek, ‘Right to Vote or Right to Revolt? Arendt and the British Suffrage Militancy’ (2008) 19(5) differences 1, 22.

¹²⁸ Ibid 22.

¹²⁹ Ibid.

¹³⁰ The Wanderground (n 63) 158.

¹³¹ For example, in opening of The Wanderground, Jacqua is concerned about the return of a man from the City. See The Wanderground (n 63) 2.

¹³² Herland (n 39) 147; Jemisin (n 34).

¹³³ Herland (n 39) 83.

¹³⁴ See the discussion in (n 53).

¹³⁵ Locke (n 53) Ch II, section 222.

¹³⁶ Johns (n 26) 174.

¹³⁷ Ibid 178.

¹³⁸ See also the way in which Herland ‘encourages what most utopian fictions seek to suppress: an active critical participation on the part of the reader’. Ferns (n 78) 178–9.

¹³⁹ Herland (n 39) 61.

¹⁴⁰ Ferns (n 78) 183.

¹⁴¹ HM Zaki, ‘Review: Fantasies of Difference’ (1988) 5(4) The Women’s Review of Books 13, 14.

¹⁴² Zaki (n 35) 241.

¹⁴³ Ibid 241.

¹⁴⁴ Miller (n 12) 342.

¹⁴⁵ This is known as shifgrethor in the novel.

¹⁴⁶ O’Donoghue and Houghton (n 36).

¹⁴⁷ Anghie (n 122) 13; see also Becker Lorca (n 123).

¹⁴⁸ U Natarajan, ‘Creating and Recreating Iraq: Legacies of the Mandate System in Contemporary Understandings of Third World Sovereignty’ (2011) 34 Leiden Journal of International Law 799.

¹⁴⁹ Aolain, F Ní, ‘Southern Voices in Transitional Justice: A Critical Reflection on Human Rights and Transition’ in Baxi, U, McCrudden, C and Paliwala, A (eds), Law’s Ethical, Global and Theoretical Contexts (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018) 73.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁰ Amadiume, I, Afrikan Matriarchal Foundations: The Igbo Case (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 1987);Google Scholar Bryant, S, Liberty, Order [and] Law under Native Irish Rule: A Study in the Book of the Ancient Laws of Ireland (Harding, London 1923); see also,Google Scholar Turner, C and Houghton, R, ‘Constitution Making and Post-Conflict Reconstruction’ in Saul, M and Sweeney, JA (eds), International Law and Post-Conflict Reconstruction Policy (Routledge, Abingdon, 2015) 119.Google Scholar

¹⁵¹ Fitting (n 5) 148.

¹⁵² Ibid.

¹⁵³ The Left Hand of Darkness 80, Le Guin uses the male pronoun throughout which has been a source of criticism.

¹⁵⁴ There is a personal anxiety around motherhood because she was criticised for sending her children to be raised by others, however in the text the characters seem perfectly at ease with collective child rearing. L West, ‘Introduction’ to Herland (Vintage, New York City, NY, 2015) x.

¹⁵⁵ Herland (n 39) 88

¹⁵⁶ The impact of slavery on motherhood and the devasting decisions this forces on mothers is also reflected in Toni Morrison’s Beloved which can be situated within the genre of horror, a sibling of science fiction. T Morrison, Beloved (Knopf, New York, NY, 1987).

¹⁵⁷ Phillips, A, Feminism and Politics (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009) 148.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁸ Herland (n 39) 131

¹⁵⁹ Ferns (n 78) 186.

¹⁶⁰ S Gubar, ‘She and Herland: Feminism as Fantasy’ in GE Slusser, ES Rabkin and R Scholes (eds), Coordinates: Placing Science Fiction and Fantasy (Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale, IL, 1983) 147 cited in Ferns (n 78) 186.

¹⁶¹ A Bammer, Partial Visions (Routledge Abingdon, 2012) 30 (emphasis in the original).

¹⁶² Allison (n 35) 478.

¹⁶³ Hairston (n 12) 293.

¹⁶⁴ P Pillai, ‘Women in International Law: A Vanishing Act?’ (2018) OpinioJuris, available at <http://opiniojuris.org/2018/12/03/women-in-international-law-a-vanishing-act/>.

¹⁶⁵ See Charlesworth and Chinkin (n 13) 57–8; Charlesworth, Chinkin and Wright (n 15); D Otto, ‘Feminist Approaches to International Law’ in A Orford, F Hoffmann and M Clark (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Theory of International Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2016) 488.

¹⁶⁶ Johns (n 26) 174.

¹⁶⁷ Ibid.

¹⁶⁸ Sargisson, L, Contemporary Feminist Utopianism (Routledge, Abingdon, 1996) 73.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁹ B Fassbender, ‘The United Nations Charter as Constitution of the International Community’ (1998) 36 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 529. For a variety of perspectives see Lang, AF Jr. and Wiener, A (eds), Handbook on Global Constitutionalism (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2017).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷⁰ For a discussion on the problems with scaling up domestic approaches, see N Walker, ‘Taking Constitutionalism Beyond the State’ (2008) Political Studies 519.

¹⁷¹ MacKinnon (n 15) 163; O’Donoghue and Houghton (n 36).

¹⁷² E.g. Jones, KB, Compassionate Authority; Democracy and the Representation of Women (Routledge, Abingdon, 1992);Google Scholar Young, IM, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2011).Google Scholar

¹⁷³ V Kumar, ‘Towards a Constitutionalism of the Wretched’ (Völkerrechtsblog, 27 July 2017); Oklopcic (n 70).

¹⁷⁴ Natarajan, U, Bhatia, A, Reynolds, J and Xavier, S (eds), Third World Approaches to International Law (Routledge, Abingdon, 2017);Google Scholar A Anghie, ‘Finding the Peripheries: Sovereignty and Colonialism in Nineteenth-Century International Law’ (1999) 40(1) Harvard International Law Journal 3, 6; Oklopcic (n 70).

¹⁷⁵ Kumar (n 173).

¹⁷⁶ B de Sousa Santos, ‘Public Sphere and Epistemologies of the South’ (2012) XXXXVII(1) Africa Development 43, 52.

¹⁷⁷ Kumar (n 173) (emphasis in the original).

¹⁷⁸ R Gordon, ‘Critical Race Theory and International Law: Convergence and Divergence’ (2000) 45(5) Villanova Law Review 827, 830.

¹⁷⁹ Ibid 840.

¹⁸⁰ Melzer (n 8) 44.

¹⁸¹ J Maggio, ‘“Can the Subaltern Be Heard?” Political Theory, Translation, Representation and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (2007) 32 Alternatives 419, 421.

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¹⁸⁵ Lorde (n 17) 42.

¹⁸⁶ These paragraph signs are there to acknowledge voices that are not always listened to within global constitutionalist discourse and it is impossible for us to articulate what others would say in this space.