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⁵ Roznai (n 3) 667.

⁶ Constitutional Petition No 12 of 2010 etc, Supreme Court of Pakistan, 5 August 2015.

⁷ Aucoin, L, ‘Introduction’ in Miller, LE and Aucoin, L (eds), Framing the State in Times of Transition: Case Studies in Constitution Making (United States Institute for Peace, Washington, DC, 2010) xviii.Google Scholar

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⁹ Albert (n 2) 245.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ A Bonime-Blanc, ‘Constitution Making and Democratization: The Spanish Paradigm’ in Miller and Aucoin (n 7) 417. See also Linz, JJ and Stepan, A, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1996) 3 (defining the end point of a democratic transition)Google Scholar; and, broadly, Linz, JJ, ‘Transitions to Democracy’ (1990) 13(3) The Washington Quarterly 143.Google Scholar

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¹⁵ Bonime-Blanc in Miller and Aucoin (n 7) 422.

¹⁶ Hart (n 13) 156.

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²¹ For a discussion of the problems of eternity clauses creating an internal constitutional hierarchy, see Albert, ‘Constitutional Handcuffs’ (n 3) 683–4.

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²⁴ See Loi Constituante no. 2011-6 du 16 décembre 2011, portant organisation provisoire des pouvoirs publics; and Décret-loi no. 2011-14 du 23 mars 2011, portant organisation provisoire des pouvoirs publics.

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³³ Ibid 27.

³⁴ Rousselin (n 30) 36.

³⁵ Ibid 39.

³⁶ M Hachemaoui, ‘Tunisia at a Crossroads: Which Rules for Which Transition?’, SWP Research Paper, German Institute for International and Security Affairs, August 2013, 25, available at <http://www.swp-berlin.org/en/publications/swp-research-papers/swp-research-paper-detail/article/tunisia_which_rules_for_which_transition.html>.

³⁷ Ibid 26–7. See also ML Marks, ‘Convince, Coerce, or Compromise? Ennahda’s Approach to Tunisia’s Constitution’, Brookings Doha Center Analysis Paper, No 10, February 2014, 26–8, available at <http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2014/02/10-ennahda-tunisia-constitution-marks>.

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⁴² ‘Opinion on the Final Draft Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia Adopted by the Venice Commission at its 96th Plenary Session (Venice, 11–12 October 2013)’, CDL-AD(2013)032, 17 October 2013 (hereinafter ‘Opinion on the Final Draft Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia’).

⁴³ The texts of the drafts may be found at ‘Constitutional history of Tunisia’, ConstitutionNet, available at <http://www.constitutionnet.org/country/constitutional-history-tunisia>.

⁴⁴ Art 114(1) of the Draft Constitution of the Tunisian Republic, 22 April 2013.

⁴⁵ ‘Enhancing the Rule of Law and Guaranteeing Human Rights in the Constitution: A Report on the Constitutional Reform Process in Tunisia’, International Commission of Jurists, 2013, available at <http://icj.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/TUNISIA-CONSTITUTION-REPORT-FINAL.pdf>.

⁴⁶ ‘Constitutional Review in New Democracies’, The Center for Constitutional Transitions and Democracy Reporting International, Briefing Paper No 40, September 2013, 1, available at <http://constitutionaltransitions.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/CT-DRI-BP-EN_Constitutional_Review_in_New_Democracies_2013.pdf>.

⁴⁷ Opinion on the Final Draft Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia, paras 165–82.

⁴⁸ See, generally, Gözler (n 3).

⁴⁹ Bellamine, Y, ‘Tunisie - Projet et proposition de loi sur la Cour Constitutionnelle: Ce qu’il faut savoir’, Huffington Post Tunisie, 1 September 2015, available at <http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/2015/09/01/projet-proposition-loi-cour-constitutionnelle_n_8071672.html>. See also ‘Opinion on the Draft Institutional Law of the Constitutional Court of Tunisia Adopted by the Venice Commission at its 104th Plenary Session (Venice, 23–24 October 2015), CDL-AD(2015)024, 26 October 2015..+See+also+‘Opinion+on+the+Draft+Institutional+Law+of+the+Constitutional+Court+of+Tunisia+Adopted+by+the+Venice+Commission+at+its+104th+Plenary+Session+(Venice,+23–24+October+2015),+CDL-AD(2015)024,+26+October+2015.>Google Scholar

⁵⁰ An example would include Ukraine’s art 157, which barred amendments ‘oriented toward the liquidation of the independence or violation of the territorial indivisibility of Ukraine’. The 2014 Crimean crisis was a blunt demonstration of the impotence of state independence or territorial integrity as constitutional principles and exposed them as serving a mostly aspirational function. See Roznai, Y and Suteu, S, ‘The Eternal Territory? The Crimean Crisis and Ukraine’s Territorial Integrity as an Unamendable Constitutional Principle’ (2015) 16(3) German Law Journal 570.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Roznai, Y, Unconstitutional Constitutional Amendments: A Study of the Nature and Limits of Constitutional Amendment Powers, a thesis submitted to the Department of Law of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, February 2014, at 30Google Scholar.

⁵² Baranger, D, ‘The Language of Eternity: Judicial Review of the Amending Power in France (or the Absence Thereof)’ (2011) 44 Israeli Law Review 403.Google Scholar

⁵³ Decision No 62-20DC, 6 November 1962; Decision No 92-308DC, 9 April 1992; and Decision No 2003-469DC, 26 March 2003. See also discussion in Baranger ibid 391–8.

⁵⁴ Eljarh, M, ‘What if Libya’s Political Dialogue Fails?’, Atlantic Council, 2 October 2015, available at <http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/what-if-libya-s-political-dialogue-fails>>Google Scholar; and Tilouine, J, ‘Libye: le Guide est mort, vive le roi!’, Jeune Afrique, 30 April 2014, available at <http://www.jeuneafrique.com/133647/politique/libye-le-guide-est-mort-vive-le-roi/>>Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Laurence Tribe discusses this scenario as a potential violation of art IV, section 4 of the US constitution, which declares that ‘the United States shall guarantee to every State … a Republican Form of Government’; Tribe, L, The Invisible Constitution (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008) 90.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See art 178 of the constitution of Algeria, art 120 of that of Bahrain, art 143 of that of Moldova, art 152 of that of Romania, and art 4 of that of Turkey.

⁵⁷ Opinion on the Final Draft Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia, para 211.

⁵⁸ See also Schwartzberg, M, Democracy and Legal Change (Cambridge University Press, New York, 2009)Google Scholar at 47 for a similar point on the entrenchment of official languages in Azerbaijan and Romania.

⁵⁹ Case No 1992/1 (Political Party Dissolution), Decision No: 1993/1, 14 July 1993, cited in Kogacioglu, D, ‘Progress, Unity, and Democracy: Dissolving Political Parties in Turkey’ (2004) 38(3) Law & Society Review 459 and, generally, 445, 447.Google Scholar

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⁶¹ Marks (n 37) 15, 17.

⁶² Ibid 17.

⁶³ Hachemaoui (n 36) 25.

⁶⁴ The main difference between Islamists and secularists on this point has been said to be their respective attitudes to individual rights: as an end in themselves for the latter, versus as only instruments for the moral development of the community for the former. See Marzouki, N, ‘From Resistance to Governance: The Category of Civility in the Political Theory of Tunisian Islamists’ in Gana, N (ed), The Making of the Tunisian Revolution: Contexts, Architects, Prospects (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2013) 212–13.Google Scholar

⁶⁵ Opinion on the Final Draft Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia, para 15.

⁶⁶ Ibid, paras 27–37.

⁶⁷ Ibid, para 32.

⁶⁸ Hachemaoui (n 36) 26.

⁶⁹ Farida Laabidi cited in Marks (n 37) 21.

⁷⁰ E Bousbih and A Yaalaoui, ‘The Interplay of Politics and Religion in the New Tunisian Constitution: A Legal Analysis’ in Rousselin and Smith (n 30) 20 and 17.

⁷¹ Ibid 22 and Böckenförde (n 31) 28.

⁷² Ben Lamine, M, ‘L’interprétation de l’article 1er de la Constitution tunisienne au regard de la liberté de conscience: Quel risque?’, CCMO: Cercle des Chercheurs sur le Moyen-Orient, 19 October 2010, 2, available at <https://cerclechercheursmoyenorient.wordpress.com/2010/10/19/linterpretation-de-larticle-1er-de-la-constitution-tunisienne-au-regard-de-la-liberte-de-conscience-quel-risque/>..>Google Scholar

⁷³ Such as the entrenchment of Islam in the constitutions of Algeria (art 178), Bahrain (art 120), Iran (art 177) or Morocco (art 100).

⁷⁴ Such as the entrenchment of secularism in the Constitutions of Angola (art 236), Congo (art 220), Portugal (art 288) or Turkey (art 4).

⁷⁵ On this point, see Hashimzai, MQ, ‘The Separation of Powers and the Problem of Constitutional Interpretation in Afghanistan’ in Grote, R and Röder, TJ (eds), Constitutionalism in Islamic Countries: Between Upheaval and Continuity (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2012) 671–2.Google Scholar See also Abou El Fadl, KM et al., Democracy and Islam in the New Constitution of Afghanistan (RAND, Santa Monica, CA, 2003).Google Scholar

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⁷⁷ See Jacobsohn (n 2).

⁷⁸ Hachemaoui (n 36) 25; and Human Rights Watch, ‘Tunisia: Revise the Draft Constitution: An Analysis of Human Rights Concerns’, 13 May 2013, available at <https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/05/13/tunisia-revise-draft-constitution>.

⁷⁹ Human Rights Watch (n 78).

⁸⁰ Marks (n 37) 25.

⁸¹ Ibid 26.

⁸² See Gall, C, ‘Tunisian Constitution, Praised for Balance, Nears Passage’, The New York Times, 14 January 2014, available at <http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/15/world/africa/tunisian-constitution-praised-for-balance-nears-passage.html>>Google Scholar; and S Mersch, ‘Tunisia’s Compromise Constitution’, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 21 January 2014, available at <http://carnegieendowment.org/sada/?fa=54260>.

⁸³ See Algeria (art 178(5)), Angola (art 236(e)), Brazil (art 60(4)IV), the Central African Republic (art 101), Chad (art 223), Congo (art 185), the Democratic Republic of Congo (art 220), Ethiopia (art 10), Guatemala (art 40 rendered unamendable by art 281), Kosovo (art 144(3)), Moldova (art 142(2)), Morocco (art 175), Mozambique (art 292(d)), Namibia (art 131), Portugal (art 288(d)), Qatar (art 146), Romania (art 152(2)), Russia (art 135(1)), São Tomé and Principe (art 154(d)), Somalia (art 112(3)(d)), Turkey (art 2 rendered unamendable by art 4) and Ukraine (art 157).

⁸⁴ Albert (n 76) 6. See also Albert, ‘Constitutional Handcuffs’ (n 3) 685–7.

⁸⁵ Lorenz, N-LA, Groussot, X and Petursson, GT, The European Human Rights Culture – A Paradox of Human Rights Protection in Europe? (Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden, 2013) 209.Google Scholar

⁸⁶ The Klass case (30 BVerfGE 1, 24 (1970)), cited in ‘Final Draft Report: On Constitutional Amendment Procedures’, European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission), CDL(2009)168, 4 December 2009, fn 161.

⁸⁷ Şahin v Turkey App No 44774/98, 10 November 2005.

⁸⁸ ‘Democratisation Process in Turkey in the Light of a New Constitution’, Conference ‘Turkey in Europe’, Keynote Speech by Mr Gianni Buquicchio, President of the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe, 2 November 2010, available at <http://www.venice.coe.int/Newsletter/NEWSLETTER_2010_04/8_Speech_TUR_EN.html>.

⁸⁹ Garlicki, L and Garlicka, ZA, ‘External Review of Constitutional Amendments? International Law as a Norm of Reference’ (2011) 44 Israel Law Review 343.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Dixon, R and Landau, D, ‘Transnational Constitutionalism and a Limited Doctrine of Unconstitutional Constitutional Amendment’ (2015) 13(3) International Journal of Constitutional Law 606.Google Scholar

⁹¹ An example not involving human rights is the Lisbon decision, Case No 2 BvE 2/08, 30 June 2009, in which Germany’s Constitutional Court pushed back against European integration on the grounds that it infringed upon the country’s unamendable constitutional identity as rooted in art 79(3) of the constitution.

⁹² See Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Case No AP-2678/06, 29 September 2006; and Case of Sejdić and Finci v Bosnia and Herzegovina, App Nos 27996/06 and 34836/06, 22 December 2009.

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⁹⁵ Habeeb, WM, The Middle East in Turmoil: Conflict, Revolution, and Change (Greenwood, Santa Barbara, CA, 2012) 157.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Marks (n 37) 28.

⁹⁷ Among these are: the Central African Republic (art 108), El Salvador (art 248), Guatemala (art 281), Honduras (art 374), Mauritania (art 99), Guinea (art 154), Madagascar (art 163), Niger (art 136), Qatar (art 147), The Republic of Congo (art 185) and Rwanda (art 193).

⁹⁸ Opinion on the Final Draft Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia, para 215.

⁹⁹ Albert, ‘Constitutional Handcuffs’ (n 3) 688.

¹⁰⁰ Maltz, G, ‘The Case for Presidential Term Limits’ (2007) 18(1) Journal of Democracy 128.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Ginsburg, T, Melton, J and Elkins, Z, ‘On the Evasion of Executive Term Limits’ (2011) 52(6) William and Mary Law Review 1840.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Maltz (n 100) 129.

¹⁰³ Ginsburg, Melton and Elkins (n 101) 1818–27.

¹⁰⁴ See Ginsburg, T, Elkins, Z and Melton, J, ‘Do Executive Term Limits Cause Constitutional Crises?’ in Ginsburg, T (ed), Comparative Constitutional Design, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012) 370.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Ginsburg, Melton and Elkins (n 101) 1814.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid 1868.

¹⁰⁷ Ibid 1814.

¹⁰⁸ For an overview of events, see ‘Q&A: Political crisis in Honduras’, BBC News, 27 January 2010, available at <http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8124154.stm>.

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¹¹¹ The prohibition on re-election is compounded by additional constitutional provisions which attach severe penalties to its breach or attempted breach (see arts 239 and 42).

¹¹² Albert, ‘Constitutional Handcuffs’ (n 3) 692. He states: ‘It was none other than this constitutional clause that pit the leading popular democratic institution in Honduras—the presidency—versus the other national democratic institutions, namely the legislature, courts, and leading independent bodies.’

¹¹³ Ginsburg, T, ‘The Puzzle of Unamendable Provisions: Debate-Impairing Rules vs. Substantive Entrenchment’, Comparative Constitutions Project, 12 August 2009, <www.comparativeconstitutions.org/2009/08/puzzle-of-unamendable-provisions-debate.html>..>Google Scholar

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¹¹⁵ Colburn, FD and Trejos, A, ‘Democracy Undermined: Constitutional Subterfuge in Latin America’ (2010) 57(3) Dissent 11.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Corte Suprema de Justicia, Sala de lo Constitucional, 22 April 2015, available at <http://www.poderjudicial.gob.hn/Documents/FalloSCONS23042015.pdf>. See also L Marsteintredet, ‘The Honduran Supreme Court Renders Inapplicable Unamendable Constitutional Provisions’, I-CONnect Blog, 2 May 2015, available at <http://www.iconnectblog.com/2015/05/marsteintredet-on-honduras/>.

¹¹⁷ Comisión de la Verdad y la Reconciliación (CVR), ‘Hallazgos y recomendaciones Para que los hechos no se repitan’, July 2011, <https:www.oas.org/es/sap/docs/DSDME/2011/CVR/Honduras%20-%20Informe%20CVR%20-%20RECOMENDACIONES.pdf>.

¹¹⁸ Landau, D, ‘The Honduran Constitutional Chamber’s Decision Erasing Presidential Term Limits: Abusive Constitutionalism by Judiciary?’, I-CONnect Blog, 6 May 2015, available at <http://www.iconnectblog.com/2015/05/the-honduran-constitutional-chambers-decision-erasing-presidential-term-limits-abusive-constitutionalism-by-judiciary/>>Google Scholar.

¹¹⁹ Marsteintredet (n 116).

¹²⁰ ‘East Africa: Burundi - Application Against President Third Term Bid Filed in Court of EAC’, allAfrica, 8 July 2015, available at <http://allafrica.com/stories/201507081720.html>.

¹²¹ ‘Rwanda Court Backs Scrapping Presidential Term Limits’, BBC News, 8 October 2015, available at <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-34477023>.

¹²² See also AT Hengari, ‘Presidential Term Limits: A New African Foreign Policy Challenge’, Policy Briefing 138, Foreign Policy Programme, June 2015, available at <http://www.saiia.org.za/policy-briefings/presidential-term-limits-a-new-african-foreign-policy-challenge>.

¹²³ On the first instance of constitutionalisation of amnesties, in South Africa, see DR Mekonnen and SM Weldehaimanot, ‘Transitional Constitutionalism: Comparing the Eritrean and South African Experience’, Paper presented at ANCL-RADC Annual Conference on ‘The Internationalisation of Constitutional Law’, Rabat, Morocco, 2–5 February 2011 at 10.

¹²⁴ Albert (n 76) 6; Ginsburg, T and Ngenge, Y, ‘The Judiciary and Constitution Building in 2013’ in Bisarya, S (ed), Constitution Building: A Global Review (2013) (International IDEA, Stockholm, 2014) 32; and Albert, ‘Constitutional Handcuffs’ (n 3) 693–8.Google Scholar

¹²⁵ Indeed, subsequent developments have shown how precarious the transitional justice system instituted in Tunisia may be, with a draft law being proposed in 2015 to grant amnesties to former elites accused of corruption and other economic crimes. See Guellali, A, ‘Tunisia: Transitional Justice in the Crosshairs’, OpenDemocracy, 8 September 2015, available at <https://www.opendemocracy.net/arab-awakening/amna-guellali/tunisia-transitional-justice-in-crosshairs>>Google Scholar; and Saleh, H, ‘Tunisia Struggles to Hold Former Regime to Account’, Financial Times, 24 February 2016, available at <https://www.ft.com/content/501f8704-d34a-11e5-8887-98e7feb46f27>..>Google Scholar

¹²⁶ Albert (n 76) 6.

¹²⁷ Ginsburg and Ngenge (n 124) 32.

¹²⁸ Azanian Peoples Organization (AZAPO) and Others v President of the Republic of South Africa and Others 1996 (4) SA 672 (CC), 25 July 1996.

¹²⁹ Ibid, para 21.

¹³⁰ See discussions in Lessa, F and Payne, LA, Amnesty in the Age of Human Rights Accountability (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012);Google Scholar and Freeman, M, Necessary Evils: Amnesties and the Search for Justice (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009).Google Scholar

¹³¹ See discussions in Varol, O, ‘Temporary Constitutions’ (2014) 102(2) California Law Review 409Google Scholar; and Jackson, V, ‘What’s in a Name? Reflections on Timing, Naming, and Constitution-making’ (2008) 49(4) William and Mary Law Review 1249Google Scholar. For an in-depth analysis of interim constitutions in conflict-affected settings, see Zulueta-Fülscher, K, Interim Constitutions: Peacekeeping and Democracy-Building Tools (International IDEA Policy Paper, Stockholm, October 2015).Google Scholar

¹³² Varol (n 131) 418.

¹³³ Arato, A, ‘Multi-Track Constitutionalism Beyond Carl Schmitt’ (2011) 18(3) Constellations 324.Google Scholar

¹³⁴ For the full list of constitutional principles which guided the South African constitution-making process, see (Interim) Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 200 of 1993, Sched 4.

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¹³⁸ ‘Tunisian Constituent Assembly Adopts Provisional Constitution’, ConstitutionNet.org, 12 December 2011, available at <http://www.constitutionnet.org/news/tunisian-constituent-assembly-adopts-provisional-constitution>; and Carter Center Report (n 23) 56.

¹³⁹ Zulueta-Fülscher (n 131) 18.

¹⁴⁰ For a detailed account of the use of sunset clauses in legislation, see Ranchordas, S, Constitutional Sunsets and Experimental Legislation: A Comparative Perspective (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2015).Google Scholar

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¹⁴² See Elkins, Z, Ginsburg, T and Melton, J, The Endurance of National Constitutions (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009) 13;Google Scholar and Schwartzberg (n 58) 11–12.

¹⁴³ Schwartzberg (n 58) 12.

¹⁴⁴ Widner (n 12) 1534.

¹⁴⁵ Art 147 of the Draft Constitution of the Republic of Tunisia, 14 December 2012.

¹⁴⁶ Elkins, Ginsburg and Melton (n 142) 13.

¹⁴⁷ Dixon, R and Ginsburg, T, ‘Deciding Not to Decide: Deferral in Constitutional Design’ (2011) 9(3–4) Journal of International Constitutional Law 645.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁸ On incrementalism as a useful mechanism of constitutional design in divided societies, see Lerner, H, Making Constitutions in Deeply Divided Societies (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011)Google Scholar. See also Tushnet, M, ‘Constitution-Making: An Introduction’ (2013) 91 Texas Law Review 2007–12.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁹ Lerner (n 148) 149 and generally 109–51.

¹⁵⁰ Ibid 149.

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¹⁵² Bousbih and Yaalaoui (n 70) 17, 19.

¹⁵³ Foley, M, The Silence of Constitutions: Gaps, ‘Abeyances’ and Political Temperament in the Maintenance of Government (Routledge, Abingdon, 2011 [1989]).Google Scholar

¹⁵⁴ Ibid 8–9.

¹⁵⁵ V Jackson, ICON-Society Annual Conference, New York, 1 July 2015.

¹⁵⁶ J Di John and J Putzel, ‘Political Settlements’, Issues Paper, (Governance and Social Development Resource Centre, University of Birmingham, June 2009) 4, available at <http://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/103642.pdf>.

¹⁵⁷ Volpi and Stein (n 38) 280, 289.

¹⁵⁸ McCormick-Cavanagh, C, ‘Tunisia MPs Resign to Stop Creation of “Dynastic Legacy” by Country’s President’, The Middle East Eye, 9 November 2015, available at: <http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/tunisia-mp-says-mass-resignations-aimed-stopping-dynastic-legacy-countrys-president-2059371519/>>Google Scholar.