¹ See Staalesen, Atle, Snow Crabs Raise Conflict Potential Around Svalbard, Barents Observer, (Jan. 23, 2017), https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2017/01/snow-crabs-raises-conflict-potential-svalbard.Google Scholar

² Royal Decree of June 3, 1977, No. 6 on the Fisheries Protection Zone Off Svalbard, pursuant to § 1 of the Act of Dec. 17, 1976, No. 9 on Norway's Economic Zone.Google Scholar

³ See Mehren, Eskil & Abelsen, Tarjei, Fisker ulovlig på norsk sokkel med EUs velsignelse, NRK (Jan. 20, 2017), https://www.nrk.no/troms/fisker-ulovlig-pa-norsk-sokkel-med-eus-velsignelse-1.13333132 (“Nå ligger skipet i Kirkenes i påvente av en reaksjon fra norske myndigheter”).Google Scholar

⁴ See Mehren, Nils & Mehren, Eskil, EU fikk klar beskjed fra europaministeren I fastlåst konflikt, NRK (Jan. 23, 2017), https://www.nrk.no/troms/eu-fikk-klar-beskjed-fra-europaministeren-i-fastlast-konflikt-1.13338024 (detailing the monetary penalty).Google Scholar

⁵ See Foreign Ministry Asks Norway to Release Latvian Fishing Ship, Baltic News Network (Latvia) (Jan. 25, 2017), http://bnn-news.com/foreign-ministry-asks-norway-to-release-latvian-fishing-ship-159087 (noting the Latvian Foreign Ministry's request that Norway release the ship and its crew of thirty).Google Scholar

⁶ Norwegian Minister of EEA [European Economic Area Agreement] and EU Affairs, Frank Bakke-Jensen and Fisheries Minister Sandberg engaged EU Commissioner for the Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, Karmenu Vella in a series of bilateral negotiations at the Arctic Frontiers Conference in Troms&; on Jan. 22–27, 2017. See Mehren & Mehren, supra note 4.Google Scholar

⁷ EU and Norway in Heated Conflict Over Svalbard Snow Crab, Fridtjof Nansen Institute (Jan. 25, 2017), https://www.fni.no/news/eu-and-norway-in-heated-conflict-over-svalbard-snow-crab-article1246-330.html.Google Scholar

⁸ Latvia ratified the Svalbard Treaty on June 13, 2016. For a complete list of signatories, see Svalbard Treaty, The Governor of Svalbard, Sysselmannen, http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Toppmeny/About-Svalbard/Laws-and-regulations/Svalbard-Treaty/.Google Scholar

⁹ Treaty Between Norway, the United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen signed in Paris Feb. 9, 1920 [Svalbard Treaty]. See Treaty Concerning the Archipelago of Spitsbergen, Feb. 9, 1920, 2 L.N.T.S. 8. Spitzbergen is the name of the largest island of the archipelago, and the islands commonly and collectively were called by that name until officially renamed Svalbard by Norway's king in 1925. Act of July 17, 1925 Relating to Svalbard, No. 11 (the Svalbard Act), http://app.uio.no/ub/ujur/oversatte-lover/data/lov-19250717-011-eng.pdf. Svalbard is an old Norsk word meaning ‘cold coast.‘ See Nansen, Fridtjof, In Northern Mists Vol. II: Arctic Exploration in Early Times 166 (Charter, Arthur G. trans., 1911).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Nkeiru Scotcher, The Sovereignty Dilemma, in The Spitsbergen Treaty: Multilateral Governance in the Arctic 21, 22 (Diana Wallis & Stewart Arnold eds., 2011). For a more in-depth discussion of the conferral of competence principle within the framework of the EU and Svalbard, see E.J. Molenaar, Fisheries Regulation in the Maritime Zones of Svalbard, 27 Int'l J. Marine & Coast. L. 3, 22–26 (2012).Google Scholar

¹¹ E.U. Long Distance Advisory Council Position on Snow Crab in Svalbard, R-12–16/WG2 (Nov. 24, 2016), 1, 3, http://ldac.chil.me/download-doc/125733. Other fishing stock specifically identified include cod, haddock, redfish, Atlanto Scandian herring, and capelin or Greenland halibut. Id. at 2 [hereinafter E.U. Long Distance Advisory Council Position].Google Scholar

¹² Id. at 3.Google Scholar

¹³ See Multi-Annual Plans, Fisheries, Commission, European, https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/fishing_rules/tacs_en (last visited Mar. 3, 2017).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Id.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See EU Long Distance Advisory Council Position, supra note 11, at 2.Google Scholar

¹⁶ See Mehren & Abelsen, supra note 3 (reporting the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) had gained access to EU documentation allowing for sixteen vessels, including the Senator, to fish for crab in the disputed Svalbard zone). In December 2016, the Latvian Agriculture Ministry representative secured licenses from the EU Agriculture and Fisheries Council, which distributed eleven crabbing licenses to Latvian fishing boats for 2017 Svalbard archipelago activities. See also Norwegian Authorities Arrest Latvian Crab Trawler with Crew of 30 People, The Baltic Course (Latvia) (Jan. 24, 2017), http://www.baltic-course.com/eng/baltic_states/?doc=127127.Google Scholar

¹⁷ E.U. Long Distance Advisory Council Position, supra note 11, at 1.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See generally Kristian Åtland, Security Implications of Climate Change in the Arctic, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, FFI-Rapport 2010.01097 (May 18, 2010), https://www.ffi.no/no/Rapporter/10–01097.pdf (discussing climate change and security implications in the High North).Google Scholar

¹⁹ See Harald Sakarias Br&;vig Hansen, Three Major Challenges in Managing Non-Native Sedentary Barents Sea Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio), 71 Marine Pol'y 38, 38 (2016) (noting their placement on the 2012 Norwegian blacklist of alien species as posing “severe ecological risk.”).Google Scholar

²⁰ Scientists ponder their presence in the Barents Sea, hypothesizing they either migrated from original nesting grounds in the Bering Strait and the coasts of eastern Canada and western Greenland in search of colder water, or were brought into the High Arctic in ballast water. See Meld St. 20 (2014–15) Report to the Storting (White Paper) – Update of the Integrated Management Plan for the Barents Sea-Lofoten Area Including an Update of the Delimitation of the Marginal Ice Zone, https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/d6743df219c74ea198e50d9778720e5a/en-gb/pdfs/stm201420150020000engpdfs.pdf (noting the invasive spread of snow crabs in the Barents Sea but expressing uncertainty as to their introduction by human activity); see also Pettersen, Trude, Snow Crabs Have Found Niche in Barents Sea Ecosystem, Barents Observer (Mar. 12, 2014), http://barentsobserver.com/en/nature/2014/03/snow-crabs-have-found-niche-barents-sea-ecosystem-12–03; J. Alvsvåg et al., Evidence for a Permanent Establishment of the Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio) in the Barents Sea, 11 Biological Invasions 587 (2009) (speculating about their introduction to the eastern Barents Sea through ballast water).Google Scholar

²¹ See Hansen, supra note 19, at 39 (quoting 2013 biomass estimates of Barents Sea snow crab stock at 188,260 tons); see also Pettersen, supra note 20 (noting their exploding population in the colder waters of the Barents Sea).Google Scholar

²² See, e.g., UN General Assembly, Development of an internationally legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction, A/RES/69/292 (July 6, 2015); Christian Prip, Towards A New Legally Binding Instrument on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, JCLOS Blog, K.G. Jebsen Center for the Law of the Sea (Oct. 21, 2016), https://site.uit.no/jclos/2016/10/21/towards-a-new-legally-binding-instrument-on-the-conservation-and-sustainable-use-of-marine-biodiversity-of-areas-beyond-national-jurisdiction/.Google Scholar

²³ See, e.g., Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) Crab Fisheries, NOAA Fisheries, https://alaskafisheries.noaa.gov/fisheries/crab (last visited Mar. 3, 2017) (listing notices of overfished stock pertaining to snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio) and other stock in U.S. waters). In U.S. waters of the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands, crab fisheries are managed by total allowable catch quotas established by a variety of agencies, including the Federal Fishery Management Plan, the State of Alaska, the National Marine Fishing Service and the North Pacific Fishery Management Council. See generally id. For information on snow crab management in Canada, the world's largest supplier, see Snow Crab, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Government of Canada, http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm-gp/sustainable-durable/fisheries-peches/snow-crab-eng.htm (last visited Mar. 17, 2017).Google Scholar

²⁴ Extensive bibliographic research on snow crab attest to their commercial value. See generally Paul, A.J., ed., Bibliography of Research on Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio) (2000) (containing 1,050 scientific entries on research published since 1995 on snow crabs in Japan, Russia, Canada, the United States, and other countries). Snow crabs are the second most valuable Canadian fishery export. See Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Government of Canada (date modified: Mar. 6, 2015), http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm-gp/sustainable-durable/fisheries-peches/snow-crab-eng.htm. Hansen estimates the yearly landed value of snow crab may total NOK 7.5 billion. Hansen, supra note 19, at 38. Most of the world's snow crabs come from eastern Canada, followed by Russia. Alaska produces about ten percent of the world's supply, with market prices at record levels in the U.S. and Japan. See Welch, Laine, As Crab Prices Soar Across Alaska, McDonald's Tests New Snow Crab Sandwich, Alaska Daily News (Mar. 3, 2017), https://www.adn.com/business-economy/2017/03/03/as-crab-prices-soar-across-alaska-mcdonalds-tests-new-snow-crab-sandwich/.Google Scholar

²⁵ Hansen, supra note 19, at 38 (“Norway has not yet established a management regime.”). See also EU krev krabbefiske, Nationen (Jan. 23, 2017), http://regimes.b.uib.no/files/2017/02/Nationen-Monday-23.1.2017.pdf (quoting University of Oslo Professor Finn Arnesen (“Sn&;krabbe er ikkje blant produkta som er omfatta av E&;Savtalen, så sp&;rsmålet har ikkje noko i ESA å gjere.”)).Google Scholar

²⁶ See Provisions for Prohibition of Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio) Catching, Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries, LOV-2008-06-06-37-§ 16, LOV-1925-07-17-11-§ 4, LOV-1999-03-26-15-§ 20, art. 1. Entered into force Jan. 1, 2015 (official translation from Norwegian). The author thanks Harald Sakarias Br&;vig Hansen of the Fridtjof Nansen Institute for locating this reference.Google Scholar

²⁷ See Harald Sakaris Br&;vig Hansen, EU krev krabbefiske, Nationen (Jan. 23, 2017), https://www.fni.no/getfile.php/133713/Dokumenter/Sn%C3%B8krabbe%201.pdf. (noting: “Norske styresmakter har innf&;rt mellombels forbod mot fiske, til dei har fått på plass eit forvaltingsregime for sn&;krabben. Det er likevel opna for dispensasjon for til saman 50 norske fart&;y.”).Google Scholar

²⁸ See Tiller, Rachel & Nyman, Elizabeth, The Clear and Present Danger to the Norwegian Sovereignty of the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Zone: Enter the Snow Crab, 137 Ocean & Costal Management 24, 24 (2017) (quoting Norwegian Foreign Ministry official, Bård Glad Pedersen). Art. 2(1) of the Continental Shelf Convention holds: “The coastal State exercises over the continental shelf sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural resources.” Norway acceded to the Convention on September 9, 1971. See Law of the Sea, Status of Treaties, United Nations Treaty Collection, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-4&chapter=21&clang=_en (last visited Mar. 17, 2017).Google Scholar

²⁹ See supra note 26, art.3 (excepting Russian vessels from the prohibition “in the zone of Norwegian continental shelf 200 nautical miles from the Russian coast in the Barents Sea”).Google Scholar

³⁰ See generally Carolina Parada et al., Spatial Dynamics of Snow Crab (Chinoecetes opilio) in the Eastern Bering Sea – Putting Together the Pieces of the Puzzle, 86 Bull. of Marine Sci. 413 (2010) (studying the migratory patterns of snow crabs and climate change).Google Scholar

³¹ See Hansen, supra note 19, at 38 (noting the sedentary nature of the species). But cf., Richard Bailey, The Atlantic Snow Crab, Underwater World 2, 4 (Dep't. Fisheries & Oceans, Government of Canada, 1981) http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/118973.pdf (noting that tagging experiments indicated that the snow crab “is not at all a sedentary species”).Google Scholar

³² See Tiller & Nyman, supra note 28, at 28 (noting the sedentary species classification of crabs, lobsters, and scallops constitute a “contentious and … gray area”).Google Scholar

³³ Harald Sakarias Br&;vig Hansen, EU and Norway in Heated Conflict over Svalbard Snow Crab, Fridtjof Nansen Institute (Jan. 25, 2017), https://www.fni.no/news/eu-and-norway-in-heated-conflict-over-svalbard-snow-crab-article1246-330.html.Google Scholar

³⁴ United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Dec. 10, 1982, 1833 U.N.T.S. 397 [hereinafter UNCLOS].Google Scholar

³⁵ Id. at art. 77.Google Scholar

³⁶ Atle Staalesen, Norway Takes Tough Line Against EU in Svalbard Waters, Barents Observer (Jan. 25, 2017), https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/industry-and-energy/2017/01/norway-takes-tough-line-against-eu-svalbard-waters (quoting the Norwegian Fisheries Minister, Sandberg).Google Scholar

³⁷ Offshore oil and gas production in the Barents Sea began in the early 1980s with Norway's Sn&;hvit field. By 2016, four billion barrels of oil equivalent (BBOe) had been discovered in undisputed Norwegian sectors and 130 wildcat and appraisal wells had been drilled. Predictions indicate that Barents Sea oil production will “grow considerably,” with annual investments for Barents Sea concessions surpassing eight billion dollars annually. See Erlingsen, Espen, Barents Sea: Norway's Emerging Oil Province, Offshore (Nov. 8, 2016), http://www.offshore-mag.com/articles/print/volume-76/issue-8/northwest-europe/barents-sea-norways-emerging-oil-province.html. Norway opening up its 23^rd licensing round for exploration projects an extension of this activity to the Northern and Eastern parts of the Barents Sea, close to the ice ridge. See Odd Jarl Borch et al., Maritime Activity in the High North – Current and Estimated Level up to 2025, MARPART Project Report 1, 5–6 (Nord Universitet Utredning nr. 7, 2016), https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2413456/Utredning72016.pdf?sequence=5.Google Scholar

³⁸ A Norwegian Foreign Ministry overview referred to the Barents Sea's undiscovered oil and gas potential as “huge,” possibly as much as 43% of undiscovered oil and gas resources. Norway's Arctic Policy 1, 7, Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2014), https://www.regjeringen.no/globalassets/departementene/ud/vedlegg/nord/nordkloden_en.pdf.Google Scholar

³⁹ See infra Part C (I).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ See Madsen, Per Anders, Norge og EU krangler om krabbefangst. Egentlig handler det om Svalbardtraktaten, Aftenposten (Feb. 4, 2017), http://www.aftenposten.no/meninger/kommentar/Norge-og-EU-krangler-om-krabbefangst-Egentlig-handler-det-om-Svalbardtraktaten–Per-Anders-Madsen-613953b.html (quoting Sandberg as saying: “Vi gir ikke bort en krabbe.”). Google Scholar

⁴¹ Council Regulation (EU) 2017/127 of 20 January 2017 fixing for 2017 the fishing opportunities for certain fish stocks and groups of fish stocks, applicable in Union waters and, for Union fishing vessels, in certain non-Union waters, ¶ 35, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32017R0127. See also Council Regulation Fixing for 2017 the Fishing Opportunities for Certain Fish Stocks and Groups of Fish Stocks, Applicable in Union Waters and, for Union Fishing Vessels, in Certain Non-Union Waters, Interinstitutional File: 2016/0344 (NLE) Brussels, Jan. 13, 2017, Council of the European Union, ¶ 35, http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-15706-2016-INIT/en/pdf (referencing the EU's Note Verbale to Norway (Oct. 25, 2016) contesting Norway's regulation of snow crab fishing around Svalbard and noting the non-discriminatory management rules of the Svalbard Treaty).Google Scholar

⁴² See Convention on the Continental Shelf arts 1,2, Apr. 29, 1958, 499 U.N.T.S. 7302, 312, (defining the term continental shelf as referring to the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas adjacent to the coast and granting coastal states sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural resources).Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ See infra note 65 and accompanying text.Google Scholar

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⁴⁶ On the rapid pace of Arctic environmental change, see Qinghua Ding et al., Influence of High-Latitude Atmospheric Circulation Changes on Summertime Arctic Sea Ice, 7 Nature Climate Change 1 (2017).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See Tiller, Rachael & Nyman, Elizabeth, Having the Cake and Eating it Too: To Manage or Own the Svalbard Fisheries Protection Zone, 60 Marine Pol'y 141, 141–42 (2015) (noting disturbances involving Norway's FPZ but also decades of de facto cooperation).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ See Stephanie Pezard et al., Maintaining Arctic Cooperation with Russia ch. 3 (Rand Corporation, 2017) (examining maritime access issues due to changes in climate and ice melt in the Arctic).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ See Øystein Jensen & Svein Vigeland Rottem, The Politics of Security and International Law in Norway's Arctic Waters, 46 Polar Rec. 75, 76 (2009) (noting polar regions were not primary interests in establishing the law of the sea).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ See Singh, Elen C. & Saguirian, Artemy A., The Svalbard Archipelago: The Role of Surrogate Negotiators, in Polar Politics: Creating international Environmental Regimes 54, 79 (Young, Oran R. & Gail Oserenko eds., 1993) (noting Spitsbergen's legal status at the Paris Peace Conference did not preoccupy Allied attention). For background, see generally Olav Riste, The Neutral Ally: Norway's Relations with Belligerent Powers in the First World War (1965).Google Scholar

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⁵⁴ See id. at 75–76 (framing Norwegian Arctic waters foreign policy in the geopolitics of Realpolitik); see also B&;rge Brende, Norway's Foreign Minister Travels to Russia to Assure Arctic Relations, Eye on the Arctic (Feb. 17, 2017), http://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2017/02/17/norways-foreign-minister-travels-to-russia-to-assure-arctic-relations/ (reviewing incidences contributing to a deterioration in relations between the two countries since Russia's annexation of Crimea). Historically, Geir H&;nneland's 1998 empirical study of compliance in the FPZ concluded a “tacit agreement” characterized Norwegian-Russian management measures, with Russia ceding practical issues to the Norwegians while maintaining the appearance of outward opposition. See Geir H&;nneland, Compliance in the Fishery Protection Zone Around Svalbard, 29 Ocean Dev. & Int'l L. 339, 347 and 353 (1998).Google Scholar

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⁵⁶ See Jensen and Rottem, supra note 49, at 81. For an interesting study of shifting foreign policy relations between Denmark and Norway on policies toward the Svalbard area, shifting from supportive, to reserved, to confrontational, see Pedersen, infra, note 120.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ See Minister of Foreign Affairs B&;rge Brende, Foreign Policy Address to the Storting 2016, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government.no (Mar. 1, 2016), https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/address_storting/id2477557/ (claiming Norway gives priority to the Arctic “to make sure [it] remains a region of cooperation.”); Norway's Arctic Policy for 2014 and Beyond – A Summary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Governmen.no (Oct. 11, 2014) https://www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/report_summary/id2076191/ (listing international cooperation in the Arctic as a priority area of its foreign policy).Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Presentations of the history and politics of Svalbard include, Rossi, Christopher R., ‘A Unique International Problem’: The Svalbard Treaty, Equal Enjoyment, and Terra Nullius: Lessons of Territorial Temptation from History, 15 Wash. U. Glob. Stud. L.R. 93 (2016); Thilo Neumann, Die norwegische Arktis im Völkerrecht: Landgebiete – Seegebiete – Grenzgebiete (2013); Torbj&;rn Pedersen, The Svalbard Continental Shelf Controversy: Legal Disputes and Political Rivalries, 37 Ocean Dev. & Int‘l L. 339 (2006); Arlov, Thor B., The Discovery and Early Exploitation of Svalbard. Some Historiographical Notes, 22 Acta Borealia 3 (2005); Geir Ulfstein, The Svalbard Treaty: From Terra Nullius to Norwegian Sovereignty (1998); S.E. Albrethsen & T.B. Arlov, The Discovery of Svalbard – A Problem Reconsidered, Fennoscandia Archaeologica V, 105 (1988); R.N. Rudmose Brown, Spitsbergen in 1914, 46 The Royal Geographical Soc‘y (with the Institute of British Geographers) 10 (1915).Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Svalbard Treaty, supra note 8, at art. 1.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Id. at arts. 2–3.Google Scholar

⁶² Id. at art. 2 (“in the territories specified in Article 1 and in their territorial waters.”).Google Scholar

⁶³ See infra, note 65.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ See Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Sal. V. Hond.; Nicar. Intervening), Judgment, 1992 I.C.J. Rep. 351, 733, ¶ 11 (Sept. 11) (dissenting opinion of Judge Oda) (noting the limited legal divisions of the sea during the first part of the twentieth century but noting the idea of the historic bay arouse around 1910).Google Scholar

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⁶⁶ On the problem of historical anachronism, see Skinner, Quentin, Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas, 8 History and Theory 3, 7 (1969).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ See Jensen & Rottem, supra note 49, at 80.Google Scholar

⁶⁸ Ministry of Justice and the Police, Report No. 9 to the Storting (1999–2000) § 4.1.1 (holding as a matter of international law that any restriction of sovereignty must be clearly based on treaty law according to provisions interpreted “on the basis of their natural linguistic meaning…. In cases of doubt, the interpretation that entails the least restriction of the exercise of authority is to be adopted”).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ See Wolf, Sarah, Svalbard's Maritime Zones, their Status under International Law and Current and Future Disputes Scenarios, 7 SWP Working Paper FG2, 2013/Nr. 02 (Jan. 2013), at 15 n. 20 (quoting The Spitsbergen Commission's 1919 Paris Peace Conference preparatory work – “pour le surplus il y a lieu d'appliquer la souveraineté de la Norvège.”).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ See Petroleum Dev. Ltd. v. Sheikh of Abu Dhabi, 18 I.L.R. 141 (1951).Google Scholar

⁷¹ Id. at 152.Google Scholar

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⁷³ See Fleischer, Carl August, Folkerett 112 (1994).Google Scholar

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⁷⁶ Svalbard Treaty, supra note 8, at art. 8.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Id. Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Id.; see also Svalbard Treaty, Sysselmannen, The Governor of Svalbard, http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Toppmeny/About-Svalbard/Laws-and-regulations/Svalbard-Treaty/ (restating Norwegian obligations under the Svalbard Treaty) (last modified Aug. 2, 2016).Google Scholar

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⁸⁰ For more discussion of pactum de contrahendo, see Obligation to Negotiate Access to the Pacific Ocean (Bol. v. Chile), Preliminary Objection, 2015 I.C.J. Rep., 656 (Sep. 24) (discussing preliminary aspects on whether Chile was obligated to negotiate in good faith Bolivia's sovereign access to the Pacific Ocean).Google Scholar

⁸¹ For discussions of the labor strife among coal miners that beset Spitsbergen's mining communities from 1906 to 1920, see Kempen, Barbara, Der Völkerrechtliche Status der Inselgruppe Spitzbergen 17 (1995); and Arlov, Thor B., A Short History of Svalbard 58 (1989). Norway honored its pledge, creating a Mining Code for Svalbard, which ended years of labor strife. See The Mining Code (the Mining Regulations) for Spitsbergen (Svalbard), laid down by Royal Decree of Aug. 7, 1925 as amended by Royal Decree of June 11, 1975, available at Regulations [C], The Governor of Svalbard, http://www.sysselmannen.no/en/Toppmeny/About-Svalbard/Laws-and-regulations/Regulations/ (last modified Mar. 17, 2016). The Treaty required the parties to establish by subsequent convention the organization and conditions for establishing meteorological stations and scientific investigations (Art. 5) and conditioned the establishment of communications systems and environmental controls on a footing open and absolutely equal to all (art. 4 (communications) and art. 2 (fauna and flora)). Molenaar noted these administrative regulations implicitly amounted to stipulations conditioning Norway's “unrestricted” territorial jurisdiction. Molenaar, supra note 10, at 11–12.Google Scholar

⁸² Svalbard Treaty, supra note 8, at art. 9 (requiring Norway not to create nor allow naval bases or fortifications, “which may never be used for warlike purposes”). For an assessment of the Treaty's demilitarization provision, see Koivurova, Timo & Holiencin, Filip, Demilitarisation and Neutralisation of Svalbard: How Has the Svalbard Regime Been Able to Meet the Changing Security Realities During Almost 100 Years of Existence?, 53 Polar Rec. (published online Jan. 25, 2017) https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247416000838.Google Scholar

⁸³ Svalbard Treaty, supra note 8, at art. 10 (“Until the recognition by the High Contracting Parties of a Russian Government shall permit Russia to adhere to the present Treaty, Russian nationals and companies shall enjoy the same rights as nationals of the High Contracting Parties”).Google Scholar

⁸⁴ See A.N. Vylegzhanin & V.K. Zilanov, Spitsbergen: Legal Regime of Adjacent Marine Areas 1–2 (W.E. Butler ed. and trans., 2017) (referring to Spitsbergen as Grumant). When the Svalbard Treaty had been opened for signature in 1920, the Allied powers had adopted a policy of diplomatic non-recognition against Bolshevik Russia in retaliation for their early exit from World War I and later for expropriating western concession contracts. The Bolsheviks lost their representation at the 1919 Versailles Peace Conference because earlier, in 1918, they had signed a separate peace with Germany, the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, to pursue their socialism in one country policy and to tend exclusively to the unfolding civil war in Russia following the 1917 revolution. The Brest-Litovsk Treaty contained a pactum de contrahendum provision that meant to place Russia and Germany on equal footing in the future settlement of the status of Spitsbergen. Germany's defeat in the war nullified the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, forcing the Soviets in 1924 to recognize Norway's sovereignty in exchange for Norway's recognition of Soviet Russia. The special status conferred to Russian nationals and the possibility of joining the convention were Allied concessions made in recognition of the established Russian historical presence on Spitsbergen in the mining community of Barents, which has since also expanded to the settlement at Pyramiden. See Rossi, supra note 59, at 128–32.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ See Torbj&;rn Pedersen, The Continental Shelf Controversy, 37 Ocean Dev. & Int‘l L. 339, 345 (quoting Johns Andenæs’ “classic” text, Statsforvaltningen i Norge 84 (1990)).Google Scholar

⁸⁶ The classical exposition of absolute or indivisible sovereignty traces to Jean Bodin, Les Six livres de la Républic, I.VIII (1576) (“La souveraineté est la puissance absolue et perpétuelle d'une République”).Google Scholar

⁸⁷ See, e.g., Lake, David A., Delegating Divisible Sovereignty: Sweeping a Conceptual Minefield, 2 Rev. Int'l Org. 219 (2007) (discussing the divisibility of sovereignty as distinct activities arising from delegating and pooling authority from within domestic political systems).Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Svalbard Treaty, supra note 9, at art. 5; see generally Machowski, Jacek, Scientific Activities on Spitsbergen in the Light of the International Legal Status of the Archipelago, 16 Polish Polar Res. 13–35 (1995). For more information on science exchange, see Svalbard Science Forum, Research Council of Norway, http://www.forskningsradet.no/prognett-ssf/Documents/1253977852390.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ See I E. de Vattel, Le Droit De Gens ou Principes de la loi Naturelle: Appliqués à la Conduit et aux Affaires des Nations et des Souverains 9 (with an Introduction by Albert de Lapradelle, 1916) [1758] (De cette Liberté & indépendance, is suit que c'est à châque Nation de juger de ce que sa conscience exige d'elle, de ce qu'elle peut ou ne peut pac, de ce qu'il lui convient ou ne lui convient pas de faire).Google Scholar

⁹⁰ See Lansing, Robert, A Unique International Problem, 11 Am. J. Int'l L. 763, 764 (1917) (noting the extraordinary circumstance of Spitsbergen's settlement following the coal-rush and its lack of political administration).Google Scholar

⁹¹ See generally Nielsen, Fred K., The Solution of the Spitsbergen Question, 14 Am. J. Int'l 232 (1920) (discussing the history of the 1910, 1912, and 1914 Spitsbergen conferences).Google Scholar

⁹² J.H.W. Verzijl, IV International Law in Historical Perspective 269 (1971). Two draft treaties were put forth but no agreement was reached before the outbreak of World War I. See Wolf, supra note 69, at 7 (noting at the 1914 conference Germany and the U.S. insisted on participating in the future governance structure of Svalbard, but “[n]o agreement was reached before the outbreak of World War I”).Google Scholar

⁹³ See generally Nielsen, supra note 91.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ See Scott, James Brown, Arctic Exploration and International Law, 3 Am. J. Int'l L. 928, 941 (1909) (noting that the international conference initiated in 1910 regarding Spitzbergen attempted “to establish a system of administration, without, however, appropriating the islands to any one of the participating powers or changing the status as terra nullius.”).Google Scholar

⁹⁵ See Avango, Dag, Svalbard Archaeology (2005), http://www.svalbardarchaeology.org/history.html.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ D.H. Anderson, The Status Under International Law of the Maritime Areas Around Svalbard, 40 Ocean Dev. & Int'l L. 373, at 374–75 (2009).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Molenaar, supra note 10, at 53.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Cf. id. at 11 (noting the equitable provisions of the Treaty's preamble).Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties art. 31, Jan. 27, 1980, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ Robin Churchill & Geir Ulfstein, The Disputed Maritime Zones Around Svalbard, in Changes in the Arctic Environment and the Law of the Sea 551, 566 (Myron Nordquist et al. eds., 2010).Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ Lord Arnold McNair, The Law of Treaties 765 (Clarendon Press ed. 1961).Google Scholar

¹⁰² See id. (referring to the outcome as “absurd” and holding: “It is difficult to believe that this [result] could accord with the intention of contracting parties).Google Scholar

¹⁰³ See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, supra note 99.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Churchill and Ulfstein concluded it is “not possible to reach a clear-cut and unequivocal conclusion as to the geographical scope of the non-discriminatory right of all parties to the Svalbard Treaty to fish and mine in the waters around Svalbard.”). Churchill & Ulfstein, supra note 100, at 593.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Gr. V. Turk.), Judgment, 1978 I.C.J. Rep. 3 (Dec. 19).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁶ The text of the reservation (b) excluded from the procedures of the General Act “disputes concerning questions which by international law are solely within the domestic jurisdiction of Sates, and in particular disputes relating to the territorial status of Greece ….” See id. at ¶¶ 39, 48–49 (having “et, notamment” in the original French of the reservation). The basis of jurisdiction stemmed from application of Article 17 of the General Act of 1928 for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, which pertained to the ICJ's predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice, which was then read in conjunction with Articles 36 and 37 of the ICJ's Statute of the Court. See id. at ¶¶ 32–34.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ See id. ¶¶ 77–80 (noting Greece's argument that the very idea of the continental shelf was wholly unknown in 1928 when the General Act was concluded, and in 1931, when Greece acceded to the Act).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ Aegean Sea Continental Shelf, supra note 105, at 1 15. In the case of a non-appearing party, the Statute of the ICJ requires that the Court satisfies itself that it has jurisdiction. See Statute of the International Court of Justice, art. 53, http://www.icj-cij.org/documents/?p1=4&p2=2#CHAPTER_III.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁹ Aegean Sea Continental Shelf, supra note 105, at ¶ 43 (“In the view of the Court, [Turkey's invocation of reservation (b) in a] formal statement, made in response to a communication from the Court, must be considered as constituting an ‘enforcement’ of the reservation”).Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ See id. at ¶¶ 69–76 (contemplating the expression “territorial status” restrictively within the context of usages during the League of Nations period and in the General Act of 1928).Google Scholar

¹¹¹ See id. at ¶ 77 (noting 1931 as the year of Greece's accession to the Act).Google Scholar

¹¹² Id. at ¶ 75.Google Scholar

¹¹³ Id. at ¶ 76.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ Id. at ¶ 79.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Id. at ¶ 77.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ See id. at ¶ 79.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ Id. at ¶ 80.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ See Norway and EU Lock Claws in Crabbing Dispute, The Local (Norway) (Feb. 14, 2017), http://www.thelocal.no/20170214/norway-and-eu-lock-claws-in-crabbing-dispute (quoting Geir Ulfstein: “No country is yet to support Norway's view on this matter”); see also Czarny, Ryszard M., The High North: Between Geography and Politics 118 (2015) (noting that no foreign country agrees with Norway's position on the maritime zone around Svalbard).Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Czarny, supra note 118, at 139 (“Norway's allies emphasize that they do not support its claims (the case in point is the UK's diplomatic note) while the EU refrains from commenting on disputes between States which are not members of the Community, while the U.S. maintains strict neutrality”); see also Note Verbale (Mar. 11, 2006), reprinted in 78 Brit. Y.B. Int‘l L. 794 (2007) (informing that “[t]he United Kingdom considers that the Svalbard archipelago, including Bear Island, generates its own maritime zones, separate from those generated by other Norwegian territory…. It follows therefore that there is a continental shelf and an exclusive economic zone which pertain to Svalbard”); Torbj&;rn Pedersen, International Law and Politics in U.S. Policymaking: The United States and the Svalbard Dispute, 42 Ocean Dev. & Int‘l L. 120 (2011) (noting the U.S. is keeping its options open).Google Scholar

¹²⁰ See Conley, Heather A., Lessons for the Arctic: Developing an International Normative Framework for a New Ocean, in History Lessons for the Arctic 1, 19–20 (Conley, Heather A. ed., 2016) (labeling Spain “the most persistent and vocal opponent of Norway's” FPZ, and noting the 1994 Hagangur II incident involving the Icelandic trawler's refusal to leave the FPZ); Torbj&;rn Pedersen, Denmark's Policies Toward the Svalbard Area, 40 Ocean Dev. & Int'l L. 319 (2009) (noting Denmark's shift toward a policy of confrontation with Norway). Other notable confrontations included the Kiel Case (Mar. 21, 2014), https://lovdata.no/dokument/HRSTR/avgjorelse/hr-2014–577-a (involving a German vessel penalized by Norway for violating by-catch haddock regulations within Svalbard's FPZ; holding that the penalty did not violate non-discrimination provisions of the Svalbard Treaty); the detention of the Spanish vessels, Monte Meixueiro and Garoya Segundo in 2005, http://www.savethehighseas.org/publicdocs/GP_IUUBriefing_Spanishvessels.pdf; and the Olazar and Olaberri (involving detention of Spanish trawlers in the FPZ; holding in favor of Norway). See Rachel Tiller & Susanne Therese Hansen, International Regime Analyses in the Northeast Atlantic, 3 J. Environ. Stud. Sci. 217, 221 (2013).Google Scholar

¹²¹ See, e.g., Kristian Åtland & Kristin Ven Bruusgaard, When Security Speech Acts Misfire: Russia and the Elektron Incident, 40 Security Dialogue 333 (2009) (involving the hot pursuit of the Russian trawler, Elektron, accused of illegally fishing in the FPZ, with two Norwegian coast guard inspectors aboard).Google Scholar

¹²² See Churchill & Ulfstein, supra note 100, at 564.Google Scholar

¹²³ See Torbj&;rn Pedersen, The Dynamics of Svalbard Diplomacy, 19 Dipl. & Statecraft 237, 250 (2008).Google Scholar

¹²⁴ See Torbj&;rn Pedersen, International Law and Politics in U.S. Policymaking: The United States and the Svalbard Dispute, 42 OCEAN DEV. & INT'L L. 120, 131 (2011).Google Scholar

¹²⁵ See Convention on the Continental Shelf, Status, United Nations Treaty Collection, (Sept. 9, 1971), https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXI-4&chapter=21&clang=_en (recording that Norway ratified the treaty on Sept. 9, 1971).Google Scholar

¹²⁶ See Skagestad, Odd Gunnar, De Norske Besittelser i Nord-Ishavet: En Sikkerhetspolitisk Analyse (Utarbeidet i 1971 på oppdrag av E-staben (Dorsvarets Overkommando (declassified on May 27, 2004), http://ogskagestad.net/NordIshavetSikkerhetspolAnalyse71.pdf (relating to the first of two important initiatives undertaken in 1970: “Det ene gjaldt å forhandle med SSSR for å få fastlagt grenselinjen mellom de to lands kontinentalsokler”).Google Scholar

¹²⁷ See id. at 25 (noting “[the second initiative] fra norsk side var at myndighetene våren 1970 fastsatte en sj&;territorialgranse på 4 n. mil for Svalbard.”).Google Scholar

¹²⁸ Royal Decree of Sept. 25, 1970 Concerning the Delimitation of the Territorial Waters of Parts of Svalbard, http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1970_DelimitationDecree.pdf.Google Scholar

¹²⁹ Id. Google Scholar

¹³⁰ See Anderson, supra note 96, at 376 (noting “[i]n 1920, Norway claimed [four] nautical miles of territorial sea”).Google Scholar

¹³¹ See id. (noting because of the employment of strait baseline the 1920 Treaty “must now be interpreted as applying … not as it was, but rather as it is today”). UNCLOS values the use of straight baselines but limits their application other than from measuring the breadth of the territorial sea using the low-water line (art. 5) to localities where the coastline is deeply indented or if a fringe of islands exists in the immediate vicinity along the coast (art. 7). The I.C.J. has affirmed that employment of the method of straight baselines is an exception to the normal rule and is contingent on circumstances enumerated above and must be applied restrictively. See Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahr.), Judgement, 2001 I.C.J. Rep. 40, ¶ 212 (Mar. 16).Google Scholar

¹³² See Skagestad, supra note 126, at 25 (“Formålet med fastsettelsen av 4 mils-grensen for Svalbards sj&;territorium var åpenbart å legge det formelle grunnlaget for et eventuelt krav om uinnskrenket norsk råderett over havbunnen såvel fra Nordkapp til Svalbard som omkring Svalbard, bortsett fra de områder som faller innenfor den nevnte 4 mils-grense, og som blir å omfatte av Svalbardtraktatens bestemmelser”).Google Scholar

¹³³ Id. at 26 (“I korthet kan man altså si at det ser ut som om Norge satser på et h&;yt spill hvor målet er det dobbelte: (1) Norsk kontroll over kontinentalsokkelen nord for Norge og omkring Svalbard, og (2) en avtalefestet og for Norge gunstig avgrensning av det norske sokkelområdet mot &;st”) (footnote omitted).Google Scholar

¹³⁴ Act No. 57 Relating to Norway's Territorial Waters and Contiguous Zone, 27 June 2003, 54 Law of the Sea Bulletin 97 (2004), http://www.un.org/Depts/los/doalos_publications/LOSBulletins/bulletinpdf/bulletin54e.pdf. For maps of Norway's extension of Svalbard's territorial sea—except Bj&;rn&;ya—see id. at 94–95.Google Scholar

¹³⁵ Id. at 97.Google Scholar

¹³⁶ Robert Beckman, The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Maritime Disputes in the South China Sea, 107 Am. J. Int'l L. 142, 149 (2013).Google Scholar

¹³⁷ See Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicar. v. Colom.), Judgment, 2012 I.C.J. Rep. 1, ¶ 140 (Nov. 19); Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary Between Bangladesh and Myanmar in the Bay of Bengal (Bangl. v. Myan.), I.T.L.O.S. Case No. 16, ¶ 185 (Mar. 12, 2012); Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Rom. v. Ukr.), Judgment, 2009 I.C.J. Rep. 40, ¶ 77 (Feb. 3); North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (F.R.G. v. Den., F.R.G. v. Neth.), Judgement, 1969 I.C.J. Rep. 30, ¶ 39 (Feb. 20); Aegean Sea Continental Shelf Case, supra note 105, at 36. For doctrinal exposition, see Jia, Bing Bing, The Principle of the Domination of the Land Over the Sea: A Historical Perspective on the Adaptability of the Law of the Sea to New Challenges, Ger. Y.B. Int'l L. 1 (2014); and Lea Brilmayer, Land and Sea: Two Sovereignty Regimes In Search of a Common Denominator, 33 N.Y.U J. Int'l L. & Pol. 203 (2000–01).Google Scholar

¹³⁸ See generally Kent, H.S.K., Historical Origins of the Three-Mile Limit, 48 Am. J. Int'l L. 537 (1954) (on Danish-Norwegian, later Swedish, and Dutch claims to sea space that a sovereign could command with a cannon from shore, later enshrined in doctrinal form by Cornelius van Bynkershoek).Google Scholar

¹³⁹ Proclamation No. 2667, Sept. 28, 1945, Policy of the United States with Respect to the Natural Resources of the Subsoil and Sea Bed of the Continental Shelf, 13 Dep't St. Bull. 485 (1945). A second proclamation (No. 2668) issued the same day related to the establishment of a conservation and fishery protection resource zone contiguous to the coasts of the U.S. See id. at 486 (Proclamation No. 2688, Sept. 28, 1945, Policy of the United States with Respect to Coastal Fisheries in Certain Areas of the High Seas).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁰ See Royal Decree of May 31, 1963 Relating to the Sovereignty of Norway over the Sea-Bed and Subsoil outside the Norwegian Coast, http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1963_Decree.pdf; Act of June 21, 1963 Relating to Exploration and Exploitation of Submarine Natural Resources, http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1963_Act.pdf.Google Scholar

¹⁴¹ See Royal Decree of Apr. 9, 1965 Relating to Exploration for the Exploitation of Petroleum Deposits in the Sea-Bed and its Subsoil on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1965_Decree.pdf.Google Scholar

¹⁴² See Royal Decree of Jan. 31, 1969 Establishing Rules Relating to Scientific Research for Natural Resources on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, etc., http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1969_Decree.pdf.Google Scholar

¹⁴³ See Royal Decree of June 21, 1970 Establishing Provisional Rules Concerning Exploration for Certain Submarine Natural Resources other than Petroleum on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, etc., http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1970_Exploration_Decree.pdf.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁴ North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Ger./Den.; Ger./Neth.), Judgement, 1969 I.C.J. Rep. 3, ¶ 19 (Feb. 20); Aegean Sea Continental Shelf Case, supra note 105, at ¶ 86.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁵ North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, supra note 144, at ¶ 19. See also Golitsyn, Vladimir, Continental Shelf Claims in the Arctic Ocean: A Commentary, 24 Int'l J. Marine & Cost. L. 401, 402 (2009) (discussing interpretation of the ab initio doctrine).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁶ See Anderson, supra note 96, at 377.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁷ See Molenaar, supra note 10, at 14 (quoting Norway's Director-General of Legal Affairs in its Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Rolf Einar Fife's article, Svalbard and the Surrounding Maritime Areas, in High North Study Tour 18–26: “[I]n accordance with established international law, the notion of the continental shelf cannot be assimilated to the concept of territory of a State”).Google Scholar

¹⁴⁸ Anderson, supra note 96, at 377.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁹ See H&;nneland, supra note 54, at 341 (noting adoption of the EEZ principle at the beginning of UNCLOS III meetings in 1975); Pedersen, supra note 120, at 323 (noting UNCLOS III's embrace of the concept of a 200-nautical-mile zone was “firmly established” by 1975).Google Scholar

¹⁵⁰ See Pedersen, supra note 120, at 323 (noting UNCLOS III's embrace of the concept of a 200-nautical-mile zone was “firmly established” by 1975).Google Scholar

¹⁵¹ Act No. 91 of Dec. 17, 1976 Relating to the Economic Zone of Norway (establishing outer limits at a distance of 200 nautical miles from applicable baselines), http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1976_Act.pdf; Royal Decree of Dec. 17, 1976 Relating to the Esbablishment [sic] of the Economic Zone of Norway, http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/NOR_1976_Decree.pdf.Google Scholar

¹⁵² See Yerkes, Andrew, Whose Fish? Looking at Svalbard's Fisheries Protection Zone, Polar Connection (Dec. 4, 2016), http://polarconnection.org/svalbard-fisheries-protection-zone/ (noting NATO member reservations, including the U.S., U.K., France, and West Germany, and Warsaw Pact reservations to Norway's unilateral extension of a maritime zone adjacent to Svalbard in 1977); see also H&;nneland, supra note 54, at 342 (noting Norway refrained from claiming an EEZ around Svalbard due to protests from other Svalbard Treaty signatories).Google Scholar

¹⁵³ Churchill, Robin R., Claims to Maritime Zones in the Arctic – Law of the Sea Normality or Polar Peculiarity? in The Law of the Sea and Polar Maritime Delimitation and Jurisdiction 105, 117–18 (Oude, Alex G. Elferink & Rothwell, Donald R. eds., 2001) [hereinafter Churchill, Polar Peculiarity].Google Scholar

¹⁵⁴ See Petersen, supra note 120, at 323.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁵ Royal Decree of June 3, 1977 (Regulations on the Fishery Protection Zone around Spitsbergen. Norsk Lovtidend, 1977, Part 1, 508). See Tiller & Nyman, supra note 28, at 27 (noting Norway's non-discriminatory allocation of quotas were based on prior history of traditional fishing in the Svalbard area).Google Scholar

¹⁵⁶ Hansen, supra note 19, at 41 (noting Norway's non-discriminatory management practice for FPZ fishing, its claim of a legal right to restrict that practice, as well as the general compliance relating to Norwegian management practices in the FPZ). Within the zone, Norway's managerial practice has included total allowable catch restrictions, declarations on areas off limits, regulations on mesh size, reporting requirements, and record keeping. See Churchill, Polar Peculiarity, supra note 153, at 118.Google Scholar

¹⁵⁷ See also Robin Churchill & Geir Ulfstein: Marine Management in Disputed Areas: The Case of the Barents Sea 101 (1992) (noting Norway's creation of the FPZ intended to signal its right to establish an EEZ without provoking confrontation with other states). See generally Tiller & Nyman, supra note 47, at 141 (noting Norway's FPZ straddles a contradiction between stable, unofficial cooperation with Russia and the potential for conflict caused by that association).Google Scholar

¹⁵⁸ See Kazianis, Harry, China's Expanding Cabbage Strategy, The Diplomat (Oct. 29, 2013), http://thediplomat.com/2013/10/chinas-expanding-cabbage-strategy/; Beckman, supra note 58 (noting China's deliberately ambiguous approach).Google Scholar

¹⁵⁹ See Tiller & Nyman, supra note 157, at 143 (discussing Norway's adaptive institutional trajectory for converting the FPZ into a Norwegian property regime depending on political winds).Google Scholar

¹⁶⁰ See Conley, supra note 113, at 19 (noting something of an informal “consensus” among the U.S., U.K., West Germany, and France).Google Scholar

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¹⁶² See DPRK Accedes to Svalbard Treaty, Korea Central News Agency (Jan. 30, 2016), http://www.kcna.kp/kcna.user.article.retrieveNewsViewInfoList.kcmsf#this (announcing the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK)'s accession to the Svalbard Treaty on Jan. 25, 2016).Google Scholar

¹⁶³ See Churchill & Ulfstein, supra note 100, at 561 (noting an EEZ must be explicitly proclaimed, although not directly stated in UNCLOS).Google Scholar

¹⁶⁴ See UNCLOS, supra note 34, at arts. 48 & 121.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁵ Agreement between the Government of the Kingdom of Norway on the one hand, and the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark together with the Home rule Government of Greenland on the other hand, concerning the delimitation of the continental shelf and the fisheries zones in the area between Greenland and Svalbard (with chart), Feb. 20, 2006, 2378 U.N.T.S. 21, entered into force June 2, 2006.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁶ Id. at art. 1 (determining the boundary “on the basis of the median line between relevant coastlines of Greenland and Svalbard”); see also Anderson, supra note 96, at 377 (“The boundary agreement … between Denmark (Greenland) and Norway (Svalbard) appears to be based on the method of equidistance between the nearest basepoints in Greenland and Svalbard”).Google Scholar

¹⁶⁷ See Churchill & Ulfstein, supra note 100, at 567 (“It is difficult to see how Svalbard can provide basepoints for determining an equidistance line if it does not have a continental shelf”).Google Scholar

¹⁶⁸ See Rozhnov, Konstantin, Norway and Russia “Open Up for Business” in the Barents Sea, BBC NEWS (Sep. 15, 2010), http://www.bbc.com/news/business-11299024 (detailing the agreement).Google Scholar

¹⁶⁹ See Anderson, supra note 96, at 377 (concluding the basepoints Norway employed to close the Loophole lay off eastern Svalbard).Google Scholar

¹⁷⁰ Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, 1985 I.C.J. Rep. 18, ¶ 34 (June 3).Google Scholar

¹⁷¹ Id. Google Scholar

¹⁷² Done in accordance with UNCLOS, supra note 34, at art. 76 (8).Google Scholar

¹⁷³ The other two claims extended into the Loophole region of the Barents Sea and the Banana Hole in the Norwegian Sea. See Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS): Outer Limits of the Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the baselines: Submissions to the Commission: Submission by the Kingdom of Norway, Oceans & Law of the Sea, United Nations (Nov. 27, 2006), http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/submission_nor.htm [updated Aug. 20, 2009].Google Scholar

¹⁷⁴ See Verbale, Note, Permanent Mission of Norway to the United Nations, Mar., 28, 2007, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/nor06/note28march2007.pdf (referring to the note dated Mar. 3, 2007 from Spain, maintaining that issues pertaining to certain provisions of the 1920 Treaty “do not affect in any manner the interpretation or application of the rules contained in article 76 of the Convention nor its Annex II, and have no bearing on the work of the Commission”).Google Scholar

¹⁷⁵ The Continental Shelf- Questions and Answers, Utenriksdepartementet, Regjeringen.no, supra note 74.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁶ Churchill & Ulfstein, supra note 100, at 567.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁷ Id. Google Scholar

¹⁷⁸ See id. at 568.Google Scholar

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¹⁸⁰ Statement by the Chairman of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on the Progress of Work in the Commission, Commission on the Limits on the Continental Shelf, CLCS/62, ¶ 18 (Apr. 20, 2009), https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N09/307/58/PDF/N0930758.pdf?OpenElement (noting the overview presented to the Commission's subcommission by Rolf Einar Fife, Director General of Legal Affairs for Norway's Ministry of Foreign Affairs).Google Scholar

¹⁸¹ See Note dated Jan. 24, 2007, Ref. No. 119.N.8, Permanent Mission of Denmark to the United Nations, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/nor06/dnk07_00218.pdf (acknowledging Denmark did not object to Norway's submission, provided the Commission not prejudice Denmark's delimitation interests in the area); Note dated Jan. 29, 2007, Permanent Mission of Iceland to the United Nations, Ref.: FNY07010008/97.B.512, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/nor06/isl07_00223.pdf (registering no objection to the CLCS rules of procedure regarding documentation consideration but reserving Iceland's rights relating to delimitation issues in the area); Note dated Jan. 29, 2007, Permanent Mission of the Russian Federation to the United Nations, No. 82/n, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/nor06/rus_07_00325.pdf (informing that the Russian Federation regards as “unresolved” the delimitation issues in the Barents Sea) [unofficial translation]; Nota Verbal, Minsterio de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación a la Embajada Real de Noruega en Madrid (Mar. 2, 2007), http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/nor06/esp_0700348.pdf (“En la medida en que la estensión de la plataforma continental presentada por Noruega se pretende efectuar desde las Svalbard hacia el norte – en la region de la ”Western Nansen Basin“ – y hacia el este – en el llamado ”Loop Hole“ –, España considera plenamente applicable el Tratado de París a esos espacios y se reserve sus derechos sobre los recursos pertenecientes a la plataforma continental que se pudiese generar desde las Svalbard, include la ampliada.”).Google Scholar

¹⁸² See The Continental Shelf – Questions and Answers, Utenriksdepartementet, Regjeringen.no, supra note 74 (holding “[t]his information is submitted to [the CLCS], which has to give its approval. Only then can the coastal state establish the outer limits of its continental shelf with final and binding effect.”).Google Scholar

¹⁸³ See UNCLOS, supra note 34, at Part IV, Art. 76 (8)Google Scholar

¹⁸⁴ See Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS): Purpose, Functions and Sessions, Oceans & Law of the Sea, United Nations, http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/commission_purpose.htm (last visited Mar. 28, 2017) (detailing the purpose and function of the CLCS).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁵ See Submissions, Through the Secretary-General of the United Nations, to the commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, Pursuant to Article 76, Paragraph 8, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of Dec. 10, 1982, Oceans & Law of the Sea, United Nations, (last updated Oct. 28, 2016), http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/commission_submissions.htm, (detailing Russian submissions in submission 1, 1a, and 1b respecting the Okhotsk Sea and the Arctic Ocean).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁶ See Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation (Approved by President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on Nov. 30, 2016), Министерство иностраннЬІх дел Российской Φедерации ¶ 76, http://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2542248?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_cKNonkJE02Bw&_101_INSTANCE_cKNonkJE02Bw_languageId=en_GB (noting the existing international legal framework “is sufficient to successfully settle any regional issue through negotiation, including the issue of defining the outer limits of the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean”).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁷ Russia negotiated a provision on Spitsbergen in the 1918 Brest-Litovsk Treaty, when it signed a separate peace with Germany. It expected to be placed on equal footing with Germany in any future disposition on the status of the archipelago. Norway was requested to host such a conference “as soon as possible.” See Peace Treaty of Brest Litovsk art. 33, Apr. 30, 1918, available at The Avalon Project, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/bl34.asp#art33a. No element of this provision survived Germany's defeat in World War I, but Russia's efforts to be place on an equal footing with Norway has created tensions. Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov suggested in the 1940s that the Treaty be thrown in the trash can and that Russia and Norway administer the archipelago. See Pedersen, supra note 123, at 237.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁸ Pezard, supra note 48, at 59–60 (discussing uncertainty regarding Russia's intentions in the High North).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁹ See Hyman, Randall, Arctic Treaty Nears 100 in Heated Climate, The Alicia Patterson Foundation (2015).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁰ See Pettersen, Trude, Russia Protests Drilling in Svalbard Zone, Barents Observer (May 5, 2015), http://barentsobserver.com/en/energy/2015/05/russia-protests-drilling-svalbard-zone-05-05 (noting Russia's diplomatic protest of Norway's decision during the 23^rd licensing round to open up three blocks for oil drilling in disputed waters near the Arctic archipelago).Google Scholar

¹⁹¹ See Stange, Rolf, Russia Protests Against Norwegian Oil Development in the Barents Sea, Spitsbergen/Svalbard Arctic Blog (May 12, 2015), https://www.spitsbergen-svalbard.com/2015/05/12/russia-protests-against-norwegian-oil-development-in-the-barents-sea.html (noting Russia's diplomatic note to the Norwegian Foreign Ministry protesting the opening of oil and gas blocks in the Barents Sea).Google Scholar

¹⁹² See Tharoor, Ishaan, The Arctic is Russia's Mecca, Says Top Moscow Official, Wash. Post (Apr. 20, 2015), https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/04/20/the-arctic-is-russias-mecca-says-top-moscow-official/?utm_term=.9c825ab7428c (quoting Rogozin).Google Scholar

¹⁹³ See Lund, Erik, When Dmitry Rogozin Speaks, People Worry, Arctic J. (May 7, 2015), http://arcticjournal.com/politics/1562/when-dmitry-rogozin-speaks-people-worry (quoting Rogozin's reference to Crimea's annexation on his unannounced visit to Svalbard).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁴ Svalbard's Oil Casts a New Chill Between Arctic Nations, Sputnik (July 1, 2016), https://sputniknews.com/business/201607011042273972-norway-svalbard-russia-oil/ (quoting Pavel Baev of Norway's Peace Research Institute).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁵ See id. (referencing Baev's claim that present-day Russia possesses neither the finances nor technology to exploit the riches in Arctic waters).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁶ See Staalesen, Atle, Russian Tourism on Svalbard Up 500%, Barents Observer (Nov. 1, 2016), https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2016/11/russian-tourism-svalbard-500 (noting revenue from tourism exceeded for the first time revenue from coal mining in the Russian settlement of Barentsburg, Svalbard, and that Russian tourism had risen by 500 percent since 2014 to about 35,000 tourists); Trudde Pettersen, Russia Boosts Tourism on Svalbard, Barents Observer (Mar. 3, 2015), http://barentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2015/03/russia-boosts-tourism-svalbard-03-03 (noting renovations to establishments in Barentsburg to accommodate tourism). Norway's government policy also identifies tourism as a principal focus of development. See St.meld. [Stortingsmelding] nr. 22 (2008–2009) (Apr. 17, 2009), Svalbard, Regjeringen.no ¶1.3.1, https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/stmeld-nr-22–2008-2009-/id554877/sec1.Google Scholar

¹⁹⁷ See Declaration, Ilulissat, Arctic Ocean Conference, Ilulissat, Greenland (May 28, 2008), http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/Ilulissat_Declaration.pdf (asserting that the five coastal states of the Arctic Ocea—Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Russian Federation, and the U.S.—by virtue of their sovereignty, are in a unique position to manage developments regarding the Arctic Ocean).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁸ See, e.g., Northern Dimension, European Union External Action (May 2, 2016), https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/347/Northern%20Dimension (discussing the joint and European Arctic policy focus of the Northern Dimension).Google Scholar

¹⁹⁹ See, e.g., Conley, Heather A. & Matthew Melino, An Arctic Redesign: Recommendations to Rejuvenate the Arctic Council, CSIS (Feb. 2016), https://csis-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/legacy_files/files/publication/160302_Conley_ArcticRedesign_Web.pdf; Andreas von Uexküll Institutional Reform of the Arctic Council, Regeringskansliet, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Sweden, https://www.arctic-council.org/images/PDF_attachments/Observer_DMM_2012/ACOBSDMMSE01_Stockholm_2012_Observer_Meeting_Presentation_Institutional_Reform.pdf (presenting ideas to strengthen the capacity of the Arctic Council).Google Scholar

²⁰⁰ See, e.g., Icelandic President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson Speaks at Apr. 17, 2013 National Press Club Luncheon, YouTube (Apr. 18, 2013), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wW0p_Eh94PI (announcing Arctic Circle Assembly initiative).Google Scholar

²⁰¹ See, e.g., Inuit Circumpolar Council Canada, http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/ (representing 160,000 Inuit of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Chukotka (Russia) in matters of their circumpolar homeland).Google Scholar

²⁰² The United States Coast Guard Office of Waterways and Ocean Policy began charting worldwide icebreaker production in 2010, listing seventeen countries with vessels and seventeen more planned or under construction. Countries with icebreakers include: Russia, Sweden, Finland, Canada, USA, Denmark, China, Argentina, Australia, Chile Estonia, Germany, Japan, South Korea, South Africa, Latvia, and Norway. See Major Icebreakers of the World, USCG, https://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg552/docs/20130718%20Major%20Icebreaker%20Chart.pdf (charting the global fleet of major icebreakers).Google Scholar

²⁰³ See generally Barents Euro-Arctic Council, http://www.barentscooperation.org/en (providing comprehensive information on the intergovernmental and interregional initiatives of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council).Google Scholar

²⁰⁴ See generally Council of Baltic Sea States, http://www.cbss.org/council/ (detailing activities of the eleven states of the Baltic Sea Region as well as the European Commission).Google Scholar

²⁰⁵ See generally Nordic Co-operation, http://www.norden.org/en/nordic-council-of-ministers (presenting introductory and current information about the official intergovernmental body for cooperation in the Nordic Region).Google Scholar

²⁰⁶ See Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, International Arctic Systems for Observing the Atmosphere, https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/iasoa/stations/nyalesund (last visited Mar. 7, 2017) (other countries maintaining permanent research bases at Ny-Ålesund include Norway, Sweden, Germany, France, Italy, The Netherlands, and England).Google Scholar

²⁰⁷ See Pettersen, Trude, Denmark Appoints Arctic Ambassador, Barents Observer (Jan. 17, 2012); Secretary Kerry Announces Department Will Establish a Special Representative for the Arctic Region, U.S. Dep't St. (Feb. 14, 2014), https://2009–2017.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/02/221678.htm; Charting Japan's Arctic Strategy, Brookings (Oct. 19, 2015), https://www.brookings.edu/events/charting-japans-arctic-strategy/ (noting creation of the Japanese Arctic ambassadorship position in 2013); MFA Press Statement: Presentation of Credentials of Singapore's Plenipotentiary Representative to the Caribbean Community, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore (Mar. 16, 2012), https://www.mfa.gov.sg/content/mfa/media_centre/press_room/pr/2012/201203/press_20120316.printable.html?status=1 (noting Ambassador Kemal Siddique's co-appointment as Singapore's Special Envoy for Arctic Affairs from January 2012).Google Scholar

²⁰⁸ See Poland in Arctic Council, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Poland, http://www.msz.gov.pl/en/foreign_policy/baltic/arctic/poland_in_arctic_council/ (noting the Arctic's increasing importance); Arctic & Baltic – Joint Meeting on Sustainable Development, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Poland (Nov. 17, 2015), http://www.msz.gov.pl/en/foreign_policy/baltic/arctic/arctic___baltic___joint_meeting_on_sustainable_development;jsessionid=93F1321AE23F2203F1B0EAAB854C9CB0.cmsap6p, (associating the impact of climate change in the Arctic with the Baltic Sea region); Michałt Łtuszczuk et al., Poland's Policy Towards the Arctic: Key Areas and Priority Actions, Policy Paper, PISM No. 11 (112) (May 2015), https://www.pism.pl/files/?id_plik=19746 (advocating the development of a comprehensive Arctic policy for Polish engagement in the region).Google Scholar

²⁰⁹ Episodic ruptures between Norway and Russia, involving Russian vessels in the FPZ, include the Novokubyshevsk incident (1998), the Chernigov incident (2001), the Severomorsk incident (2002), the Elektron incident (2005) and the Sapphire II incident (2011). See Offerdal, Kristine, The 1920 Svalbard Treaty, in History Lessons for the Arctic 13, 20–21 (Conley, Heather A. ed., 2016); Thomas Nilsen, Sapphire-II Sails Towards Svalbard Again, Barents Observer (Oct. 7, 2011) (reporting on the 2011 Norwegian detention of the Russian trawler).Google Scholar

²¹⁰ See Hyman, Randall, Arctic Treaty Nears 100 in Heated Climate, The Alicia Patterson Foundation (2015), http://aliciapatterson.org/stories/arctic-treaty-nears-100-heated-climate, (noting the decades-long practice among Russian trawler captains fishing in Svalbard waters to refuse signing Norwegian fisheries inspection papers).Google Scholar

²¹¹ See Finsveen, Jesper Nordahl, Den franske polfareren nektet å vedta boten for å legge til på Svalbard. Nå er han d&;mt, Dagbladet (Mar. 22, 2017), http://www.dagbladet.no/nyheter/den-franske-polfareren-nektet-a-vedta-boten-for-a-legge-til-pa-svalbard-na-er-han-domt/67418767 (detailing the conviction of French explorers for anchoring their vessel, Arktika, in an environmentally protected area on Svalbard, notwithstanding his defense invoking the equal access provision of the Svalbard Treaty).Google Scholar

²¹² Aesop's Fables, http://www.taleswithmorals.com/ (last visited Oct. 21, 2017).Google Scholar