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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 06 March 2019
According to the European Convention on Nationality (1997), nationality-or the term “citizenship” used as synonymous with nationality-means a legal bond between a person and a state. As such, nationality is linked to nation building. Nationality can also be defined as equal membership in a political community, and as a status to which rights and duties, participatory practices and a sense of national identity are attached. In other words, nationality constitutes an important element of a person's identity.
European Union citizenship is linked to nationality in an EU Member State. Union citizenship grants rights to the Member State nationals and may be defined as membership in a larger political community, the EU. Union citizenship is meant to foster a feeling of European identity. The third report of the Commission on Citizenship of the Union described citizenship as “both a source of legitimation of the process of European integration, by reinforcing the participation of citizens, and a fundamental factor in the creation among citizens of a sense of belonging to the European Union and of having a genuine European identity.”
1 See, e.g., Kostakopoulou, Dora, Co-creating European Union Citizenship, in European Commission Policy Review 14 (2013).Google Scholar
2 See, e.g., United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child art. 8, Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3 (concerning the child's right to preserve his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations).Google Scholar
3 See Report from the Commission—Third Report from the Commission on Citizenship of the Union, at 7, COM (2001) 506 final (Jul. 9, 2001).Google Scholar
4 See Results of the 2014 European Elections, Eur. Parliament (May 25, 2014), http://www.results-elections2014.eu/en/turnout.html.Google Scholar
5 Guild, Elspeth, The Legal Elements of European Identity—EU Citizenship and Migration Law (2004).Google Scholar
6 Id. at 1.Google Scholar
7 Id. at xi. Google Scholar
8 Malta, Dadouch v., ECHR App. No. 38816/07, para. 47 (Oct. 20, 2010), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/.Google Scholar
9 Malta, Genovese v., ECHR App. No. 53124/09, paras. 33–34 (Jan. 11, 2012), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/.Google Scholar
10 See Andreas F&llesdal, Union Citizenship: Unpacking the Beast of Burden (Arena Center for European Studies, Working Paper No. 01/9, 2001).Google Scholar
11 See the launch of the European Year of Citizens by the Irish Presidency at http://eu2013.ie/ireland-and-the-presidency/abouttheeu/theeuandyou/europeanyearofcitizens/ Google Scholar
12 Janko Rottmann v. Freistaat Bayern, CJEU Case C-135/08, 2010 E.C.R. I-1449.Google Scholar
13 See Guild, Elspeth, The Legal Elements of European Identity—EU Citizenship and Migration Law 17 (2004)Google Scholar
14 Malta, Genovese v., ECHR App. No. 53124/09, paras. 12, 41 (Jan. 11, 2012), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/.Google Scholar
15 Id. at para. 22.Google Scholar
16 Id. at para. 30.Google Scholar
17 Id. at para. 33.Google Scholar
18 Id. at paras. 34–36.Google Scholar
19 Finland, Karassev v., ECHR App. No. 31414/96 (Jan. 12, 1999), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/.Google Scholar
20 The Finnish Nationality Act entitled a child born in Finland who did not at birth receive the citizenship of any other country to Finnish nationality.Google Scholar
21 Finland, Karassev v., ECHR App. No. 31414/96, para. 1b (Jan. 12, 1999), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/.Google Scholar
22 Id. Google Scholar
23 Id. Google Scholar
24 Id. Google Scholar
25 Id. at para. 2.Google Scholar
26 See also Groot, Rene de & Vonk, Oliver, Non-discriminatory access to the nationality of the father protected by the ECHR, A comment on Genovese v. Malta (European Court of Human Rights, Oct. 11, 2011), http://eudo-citizenship.eu/caselawDB/docs/Case%20Law%20Notes/Genovese%20case%20comment.pdf.Google Scholar
27 See Malta, Genovese v., ECHR App. No. 53124/09, para. 34 (Jan. 11, 2012), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/.Google Scholar
28 Id. at para. 28.Google Scholar
29 Id. at para. 28.Google Scholar
30 Id. at para. 33.Google Scholar
31 Id. at paras. 48–49.Google Scholar
32 Malta, Genovese v., ECHR App. No. 53124/09 (Jan. 11, 2012), http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/ (Valenzia, J., dissenting).Google Scholar
33 Id. Google Scholar
34 Id. Google Scholar
35 Id. Google Scholar
36 Janko Rottmann v. Freistaat Bayern, CJEU Case C-135/08, 2010 E.C.R. I-1449, paras. 42, 49.Google Scholar
37 Id. at para. 56 (emphasis added).Google Scholar
38 See Shaw, Jo, Setting the scene: the Rottmann case introduced, 1–4 (Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies, EUI Working Paper No. 62, 2011), available at http://eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/RSCAS_2011_62.pdf; Gareth T. Davies, The entirely conventional supremacy of Union citizenship and rights, 5–10 (Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies, EUI Working Paper No. 62, 2011), available at http://eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/RSCAS_2011_62.pdf.Google Scholar
39 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, Mar. 30, 2010, 2010 O.J. (C 83/389) arts. 7, 21(1).Google Scholar
40 Read about the Swedish reform at http://www.regeringen.se/download/07304fa5.pdf?major=1&minor=215710&cn=attachmentPublDuplicator_0_attachment; see Danish Nationality Act, Consolidation Act No. 422, July 1, 2014, § 1 available at https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=163631.Google Scholar
41 Gerado Ruiz Zambrano v. Office national de l'emploi (ONEM), CJEU Case C-34/09, 2011 E.C.R. I 2011 I-01177; see also Careth T. Davies, The Family Rights of European Children: Expulsion of Non-European Parents (Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies, EUI Working Paper No. 4, 2012), available at http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/20375/RSCAS_2012_04.pdf?sequence=1.Google Scholar
42 Eur. Comm'n, European Citizenship Report 4 (2013), http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_365_en.pdf.Google Scholar
43 Id. at 6.Google Scholar
44 Id. at 21.Google Scholar
45 Id. at 26–27.Google Scholar
46 Id. Google Scholar
47 See Eur. Comm'n, Public Opinion in the European Union, First Results (2013), http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb79/eb79_first_en.pdf.Google Scholar
48 Id. at 5.Google Scholar
49 Id. More than three in four respondents in Luxembourg, Malta and Slovakia feel that they are citizens of the EU, while less than half do so in Bulgaria, the United Kingdom, Cyprus and Greece. However, these are the only four Member States where a majority of respondents do not feel that they are citizens of the EU.Google Scholar
50 See Eur. Comm'n, Eurobarometer 71: Future of Europe (2010), http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/eb/eb71/eb713_future_europe.pdf.Google Scholar
51 Id. at 34.Google Scholar
52 Id. at 39.Google Scholar
53 Id. Google Scholar
54 Compare id. at 35–36, with id. at 37–38.Google Scholar
55 Id. at 42–50.Google Scholar
56 Id. Google Scholar
57 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 47, at 5.Google Scholar
58 Id. at 8.Google Scholar
59 Id. Google Scholar
60 Id. at 9.Google Scholar
61 Id. at 10.Google Scholar
62 Id. Google Scholar
63 Id. at 11.Google Scholar
64 Id. Google Scholar
65 Id. at 27.Google Scholar
66 Id. at 29.Google Scholar
67 Id. at 27.Google Scholar
68 Id. at 11; Eur. Comm'n, supra note 42, at 21.Google Scholar
69 Eur. Comm‘n, supra note 42, at 6; Eur. Comm‘n, supra note 47, at 7.Google Scholar
70 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 47, at 5.Google Scholar
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72 See Spanish Memorandum: Towards a European Citizenship, Council Doc. SN 3940/90 (Feb. 21, 1991), http://eudo-citizenship.eu/inc/policydoc/Spanish%20Memorandum.pdf.Google Scholar
73 See Dansk Institut for Internationale Studier, De Danske Forbehold, Udviklingen Siden 2000, 30, 34 (2008).Google Scholar
74 Id.; see also Henrik Larsen, British and Danish policies in the 1990s: A Discourse Approach, 5(4) Eur. J. of Int'l. Rel. 464, 466 (1999).Google Scholar
75 See Dansk Udenrigspolitisk Institut, Udviklingen I EU Siden 1992 på de Områder, der er Omfattet af de Danske Forbehold 31 (2000).Google Scholar
76 See The National Compromise: Denmark in Europe (1992), http://www.eu-oplysningen.dk/dokumenter/traktat/eu/nationalkompromis/.Google Scholar
77 Id. at § A. Introductory Remarks.Google Scholar
78 See Edinburgh Agreement, Folketinget (1992), http://www.eu-oplysningen.dk/emner_en/forbehold/edinburgh/.Google Scholar
79 See European Council, Birmingham Declaration (Oct. 16, 1992), http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_DOC-92-6_en.htm.Google Scholar
80 See Denmark and the Treaty on European Union, Dec. 31, 1992, 1992 O.J. (C 348).Google Scholar
81 Id. Google Scholar
82 Stated in the preparatory work to the Danish Act on ratification of the Maastricht Treaty, see Betænkning Mar. 19, 1993 in FT 1992–93 tillæg B 977.Google Scholar
83 Treaty of Amsterdam Amending the Treaty of The European Union, the Treaties Establishing the European Communities and Certain Related Acts, Oct. 2, 1997, 1997 O.J. (C 340) art. 2(9) [hereinafter Treaty of Amsterdam].Google Scholar
84 See Jacobs, Francis G., Citizenship of the European Union—A Legal Analysis, 13(5) Eur. L. J. 592 (2007).Google Scholar
85 Dansk Institut for Internationale Studier, supra note 73.Google Scholar
86 See Danish Institute for International Studies, De Danske forbehold over for den Europæiske union, Udviklingen siden 2000, 244–45 (2008).Google Scholar
87 Id. Google Scholar
88 See Opinion Poll (2013), http://img.borsen.dk/img/cms/tuksi4/media/cmsmedia/2273_content_2_2266.pdf.Google Scholar
89 Id. Google Scholar
90 Id. Google Scholar
91 In total the respondents were asked five questions: one for each opt-out and one for “the whole package.”Google Scholar
92 Opinion Poll, supra note 88.Google Scholar
93 Opinion Poll, supra note 88.Google Scholar
94 Opinion Poll, supra note 88.Google Scholar
95 See Eur. Comm'n, supra note 42.Google Scholar
96 See Eur. Comm'n, supra note 47.Google Scholar
97 See Eur. Comm'n, supra note 42.Google Scholar
98 Cf., supra, the confusion created by the translation of the Spanish memorandum where EU citizenship was translated to EU statsborgerskab. Google Scholar
99 Eur. Comm'n, supra note 42, at question 2 in the Danish version, http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl_365_fact_dk_da.pdf.Google Scholar
100 See, e.g., infra, judgments in Section D.Google Scholar
101 See Talevski, Kirsten, God vejledning styrker borgernes retssikkerhed [Good Guidance Strengthens the Legal Rights of Citizens], Parliamentary Ombudsmen Report (2009), http://beretning.ombudsmanden.dk/artikler/god_vejledning_styrker_borgernes_retssikkerhed.Google Scholar
102 See Vejledningssagen er slut [The case on guidance is brought to an end], Folketingets Ombudsmand (Nov. 21, 2008), http://www.ombudsmanden.dk/find/nyheder/alle/Vejledningssagen_er_slut/Vejledningssagenerslut.pdf.Google Scholar
103 Jacobs, Francis G., Citizenship of the European Union – A Legal Analysis, 13(5) Euro. L.J. 592 (2007).Google Scholar
104 See Treaty of Maastricht on European Union, Nov. 1, 1993, O.J. (C 191) art. 8(a)-(f).Google Scholar
105 Jacobs, , supra note 103, at 592.Google Scholar
106 Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, May 9, 2008, 2008 O.J. (C 115) art. 18 [hereinafter TFEU) (stating, “[w]ithin the scope of application of the Treaties, and without prejudice to any special provisions contained therein, any discrimination on grounds of nationality shall be prohibited. The European Parliament and the Council, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure, may adopt rules designed to prohibit such discrimination.”).Google Scholar
107 See Gerardo Ruiz Zambrano v. Office national de l'emploi (ONEM), CJEU Case C-34/09, 2011 E.C.R. I-01177, para. 41.Google Scholar
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109 See, e.g., Kunqian Catherine Zhu and Man Lavette Chen v. Sec'y of State for the Home Dep't, CJEU Case C-200/02, 2004 E.C.R. I-9925; Janko Rottmann v. Freistaat Bayern, CJEU Case C-135/08, 2010 E.C.R. I-1449; Zambrano, CJEU Case C-34/09.Google Scholar
110 See Leanaerts, Justice Koen, “Civis europaeus sum”: From the Cross-Border Link to the Status of Citizen of the Union, 3 Online J. Free Movement of Workers Within the Eur. Union 6 (2011).Google Scholar
111 See Jacobs, , supra, note 103.Google Scholar
112 See Shaw, Jo, Concluding Thoughts: Rottmann in Context, Eur. University Institute 8 (2011).Google Scholar
113 See supra Part B.Google Scholar
114 See European Convention on Nationality, Nov. 6, 1997, E.T.S. No. 166 art. 3.Google Scholar
115 See Anne Zacho M&ller, Network Formation and Sense of Belonging: An Investigation of Social Boundaries and Trifocal Affiliation, 7 (Spring 2009) (unpublished Master's Thesis, Malmö Högskola), http://www.aegteskabudengraenser.dk/uploads/files/thesis_gathered.pdf (explaining how Danish citizens move to Sweden with a foreign spouse with a view to acquire Swedish citizenship after two years' residence—possible for Nordic citizens—in order to move back to Denmark as EU citizens with a TCN spouse (so far, Danish citizenship is lost by the acquisition of a foreign citizenship).Google Scholar
116 See Costanza Margiotta & Olivier Vonk, Nationality Law and European Citizenship: The Role of Dual Nationality 7 (Eur. Univ. Institute, Eur. Union Democracy Observatory on Citizenship, Working Paper No. RSCAS 66, 2010), available at http://eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/RSCAS%202010_66.pdf (explaining Italian Citizenship policy that allows Italian citizenship to be passed on after emigration without restrictions, even a person who can prove descent from an Italian who emigrated before the unification of Italy in 1861 is entitled to Italian nationality, provided that the Italian ancestor was alive at the time of the unification).Google Scholar
117 Mario Vicente Micheletti and others v. Delegación del Gobierno en Cantabria, CJEU Case C-369/90, 1992 E.C.R. I-04239 (This case was decided before the Maastricht Treaty entered into force.).Google Scholar
118 Id. at paras. 2-4.Google Scholar
119 Id. at para. 10.Google Scholar
120 See Report from the Commission—Third Report from the Commission on Citizenship of the Union, at 7, COM (2001) 506 final (Jul. 9, 2001).Google Scholar
121 See Margiotta, & Vonk, , supra note 116.Google Scholar
122 See Bauböck, Rainer & Perchinig, Bernhard, Evaluations and Recommendations, in Acquisition and Loss of Nationality, Vol. 1: Comparative Analyses 454 (Rainer Bauböck et al. eds., 2006).Google Scholar
123 Information about the case given during counseling at the Danish Institute for Human Rights in 2013.Google Scholar
124 See Consolidated Act on Danish Nationality, No. 422, July 1, 2004, § 8(1) (stating, “[a]ny person born abroad who has never lived in Denmark nor been staying in Denmark under circumstances indicating some association with Denmark will lose his or her Danish nationality on attaining the age of 22 unless this will make the person concerned stateless. The Minister for Refugee, Immigration and Integration Affairs [now the Minister of Justice] or the person he so authorises may grant an application, submitted before the applicant's 22nd birthday, for retention of Danish nationality.”).Google Scholar
125 See Janko Rottmann v Freistaat Bayern, CJEU Case C-135/08, 2010 E.C.R. I-1449, para 42.Google Scholar
126 Id. at paras. 45-46 (regarding the CJEU's possibility to rule on questions concerning the conditions in which a citizen of the Union may, due to loss of citizenship, lose his or her status of citizen of the Union and thereby be deprived of the rights attaching to that status).Google Scholar
127 See supra text accompanying note 123.Google Scholar
128 See Rottmann, CJEU Case C-135/08 at paras. 50-52 (holding it is for the national court to ascertain whether a withdrawal decision observes the principle of proportionality so far as concerns the consequences it entails for the situation of the person concerned in the light of European Union law, in addition, where appropriate, to examination of the proportionality of the decision in the light of national law).Google Scholar
129 See Zhu and Chen, CJEU Case C-200/02, 2004 E.C.R. I-09925.Google Scholar
130 Id. at para. 26.Google Scholar
131 Id. at paras. 7–14.Google Scholar
132 Id. at para. 25.Google Scholar
133 Id. at paras. 36-41.Google Scholar
134 Id. at para. 45.Google Scholar
135 See The Queen v. Sec'y of State for the Home Dep't, ex parte Manjit Kaur, CJEU Case C-192/99, 2001 E.C.R. I-1237, paras. 19-27.Google Scholar
136 Information about the case given during counseling at the Danish Institute for Human Rights in 2011-2013.Google Scholar
137 Convention on the Rights of the Child art. 7, Nov. 20, 1989 (establishing that the child shall have the right from birth to a name and the right to acquire a nationality).Google Scholar
138 See the Ministry of Justice's Circular Letter No. 9253 of 6 June 2013 on naturalisation, available at https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=152087, § 17, (stating that in accordance with the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, children who are born stateless in Denmark may be listed in a naturalisation bill, regardless of whether they fulfil the ordinary conditions, if they are resident in Denmark.).Google Scholar
139 Folketinget underkender Morten B&dskov i sag om statsl&s pige [The Parliament does not approve (the Minister of Justice) in case on stateless girl], Information (Apr. 25, 2013), http://www.information.dk/458535.Google Scholar
140 See Blaise Baheten Metock and Others v. Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform, CJEU Case C-127/08, 2008 3 C.M.L.R. 39.Google Scholar
141 Id. at paras. 62-65.Google Scholar
142 The other three cases dealt with applicants who had not been lawfully residing in another member state before moving to Ireland.Google Scholar
143 See Sec'y of State for the Home Dep't v. Hacene Akrich, CJEU Case C-109/01, 2003 E.C.R. I-9607, para.50.Google Scholar
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145 Id. at para. 56.Google Scholar
146 Id. at para. 68.Google Scholar
147 See Zambrano, CJEU Case C-34/09 at para. 39.Google Scholar
148 See Murat Dereci and Others v. Bundesministerium für Inneres, CJEU Case C-256/11, 2011 E.C.R. I-11315, paras. 54, 74.Google Scholar
149 See Staver, Anne, Reverse Discrimination in European Family Reunification Policies, in Democratic Citizenship and the Free Movement of People 57 (Willem Maas ed., 2013).Google Scholar
150 See The Single Market Act II, Together for New Growth (Oct. 3, 2012), http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/smact/docs/single-market-act2_en.pdf.Google Scholar
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172 Id. at para. 155.Google Scholar
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