¹ See for example, Alston chase, harvard and the unabomber (2003); Roger lane, Murder in America 314 (1997).Google Scholar

² For more on him, see also lothar fritze, legitimer widerstand? der fall elser (Legitimate resistance? The Elser case, 2009); Peter steinbach & Johannestuchel, georg elser (2010).Google Scholar

³ Two perpetrator with radical Islamic background: Arid Uka, who murdered two American servicemen at Frankfurt Airport in March 2011 (sentenced to life imprisonment by Hessian High Court), and Mohammad Merah, who shot three French Soldiers, a Rabbi and three Jewish children in the Midi-Pyrénées-region in March 2012 (he was killed in a gunfight with the French police).Google Scholar

⁴ See e.g. Johannes rogalla von bieberstein, der Mythos von der verschwörung (The myth of the conspiracy, 2008); mark zöller, Terrorismusstrafrecht 11 (Anti-terrorism criminal law, 2009).Google Scholar

⁵ For more information on the offence of conspiracy, see e.g. john scheb, criminal law 119 (2012); Richard singer & john la fond, criminal law 339 (2010); see also james wallace bryan, the development of the english law of conspiracy (1909). Quite different the German Section 30 StGB (Attempted Participation): “whoever agrees with another to commit or incite the commission of a [concrete] serious criminal offence”; for more on this, see karina becker, der straftatbestand der verbrechensverabredung gem. § 30 Abs. 2, 3. Alt. (2012); ulrich fieber, die Verbrechensverabredung, § 30 Abs. 2, 3. Alt. StGB (2001). See also Christoph Safferling, Die Strafbarkeit wegen “Conspiracy” in Nürnberg und ihre Bedeutung für die Gegenwart (The culpability for “Conspiracy” in Nuremberg and its importance for the present), 93 kritische vierteljahresschrift 87 (2010).Google Scholar

⁶ Strafgesetzbuch (“StGB”) or the German Criminal Code.Google Scholar

⁷ BVerfGE (Reports of the Federal Constitutional Court) 5, 85, 139; 25, 88, 100; Horst Dreier, Grenzen demokratischer Freiheit im Verfassungsstaat (Limits of democratic freedom in the Constitution State), 49 juristenzeitung (JZ) 741 (1994); eckhard jesse, streitbare demokratie (Militant Democracy, 1980); Hans-Jürgen Papier & Wolfgang Durner, Streitbare Demokratie, 128 archiv des öffentlichen rechts 340 (2003); militant democracy (András Sajó ed., 2004); the ‘militant democracy’ principle in modern democracies (Markus Thiel ed., 2009); on the origin of this idea, see Karl Loewenstein, Militant Democracy and Fundamental Rights, 31 american political science review 417, 638 (1937).Google Scholar

⁸ For further information, see jens heinrich, vereinigungsfreiheit und vereinigungsverbot – dogmatik und praxis des Art. 97 Abs. 2 GG (Freedom of association – Dogmatics and practice of Art. 97 ABS. 2 GG, 2005).Google Scholar

⁹ Id. at 105, 246.Google Scholar

¹⁰ BVerfGG: Bundesverfassungsgerichtsgesetz, or Federal Constitutional Court Act.Google Scholar

¹¹ See e.g. Markus Sichert, Das Parteiverbot in der wehrhaften Demokratie (Party ban in defending democracy), 54 die öffentliche verwaltung (DÖV) 671 (2001); armin zirn, das parteienverbot nach Art. 21 Abs. 2 GG im rahmen der streitbaren demokratie des grundgesetzes (Party ban by Art. 21 ABS. 2 GG, under the basic law, 1981.Google Scholar

¹² PartG: Parteiengesetz or the Political Parties Act.Google Scholar

¹³ See also mark zöller, supra note 4, at 636.Google Scholar

¹⁴ In the cases under Section 84 subsection 1 StGB, the minimum term of imprisonment is increased to three months. In the cases under Section 85 subsection 1 StGB, a fine may also be applied. Unlike in the case of Section 20 subsection 1 VereinsG, even the attempt is punishable (Sections 84 ss. 1, sentence 2, 85 ss. 1, sentence 2 StGB).Google Scholar

¹⁵ In addition, in both cases, fines are also possible. Moreover, the other substantive decisions of the Federal Constitutional Court in the prohibition procedure according to Article 21 subsection 2 GG and Section 33 subsection 2 PartG and the enforcement of the substantive decisions passed in such a procedure are also protected by punishment: in this respect contraventions also face a prison sentence of up to five years or a fine (Section 84 subsection 3 StGB).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Section 127 StGB, which threatens anyone “forming armed groups” with up to two years’ imprisonment or a fine, is not taken into consideration here. According to this, it is punishable to form or command a group in possession of weapons or other dangerous instruments, to join such a group, provide it with weapons or money or otherwise support it.Google Scholar

¹⁷ For a more detailed conceptual definition of the criminal association, see BGHSt (Reports of the Federal Court of Justice) 45, 26, 35; 54, 69, 107; 54, 216, 221; 56, 28, 29.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See also thomas fischer, strafgesetzbuch (Penal Code) § 129 MN 5, § 129a MN 4 (2012).Google Scholar

¹⁹ See also Matthias Krauß, leipziger kommentar zum strafgesetzbuch (Leipzig commentary on the penal code), 129 MN 18 (Heinrich Wilhelm Laufhütte, Ruth Rissing-van Saan & Klaus Tiedemann eds., 2008); Schäfer, Jürgen, münchener kommentar zum StGB (Munich commentary, SGB), § 129 MN 14 (Wolfgang Joecks & Klaus Miebach eds., 2012); Mark Zöller, Zur Auslegung des Begriffs der kriminellen Vereinigung in § 129 StGB im europäischen Kontext (The interpretation of the concept of criminal organization in § 129 of the Penal Code in the European context), 65 juristenzeitung 908 (2010).Google Scholar

²⁰ For this, seethe Bundestag printed paper (BT-Drs.) 4/2145, 8.Google Scholar

²¹ See also Lenckner, Theodor & Sternberg-Lieben, Detlev, strafgesetzbuch (Penal code), § 129 MN 10 (Adolf Schönke & Horst Schröder eds., 2010).Google Scholar

²² See also Ostendorf, Heribert, nomos kommentar zum strafgesetzbuch (Nomos commentary on the penal code), 129 MN 3 (Urs Kindhäuser, Ulfrid Neumann & Hans-Ulrich Paeffgen eds., 2010).Google Scholar

²³ StPO: Strafprozessordnung, or German Code of Criminal Procedure.Google Scholar

²⁴ BVerfGE 109, 279; 57 NEUE JURISTISCHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 999 (2004).Google Scholar

²⁵ Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at § 129 MN 175; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129 MN 25; see further, Bundesrat printed paper (BR-Drs.) 359/05, 359/1/05, and Bundestag printed paper (BT-Drs.) 15/4533.Google Scholar

²⁶ Bundestag printed paper (BT-Drs.) 15/5621, 2; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129 MN 25.Google Scholar

²⁷ Helm, Martin, Die Bildung terroristischer Vereinigungen (The formation of terrorist associations), 48 strafverteidiger 719 (2006).Google Scholar

²⁸ Introduced through the so-called anti-terrorism law, more precisely: Law Amending the StGB, StPO, GVG, BRAO and StVollzG of 18.8.1976 (Federal Law Gazette [BGBl.] I 2181).Google Scholar

²⁹ To multifarious efforts on defining terrorism, see Manuel Cancio Meliá, Zum strafrechtlichen Begriff des Terrorismus (The criminal concept of terrorism), 159 goltdammer's archiv für strafrecht 1 (2012); Thomas Weigend, Terrorismus als Rechtsproblem (Terrorism as a legal problem), strafrecht und Justizgewährung. festschrift für kay nehm 151, 153 (Rainer Griesbaum et al, eds, 2006); mark zöller, supra note 4, at 99, 132.Google Scholar

³⁰ Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at § 129a before MN 1; Kai Lohse, StGB – strafgesetzbuch, § 129a MN 1 (Helmut Satzger, Bertram Schmitt & Gunter Widmaier eds., 2009); Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at § 129a MN 2.Google Scholar

³¹ Zöller, Mark, supra note 4, at 209.Google Scholar

³² See Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at § 129a MN 18.Google Scholar

³³ See also Kai Lohse, supra note 30 at § 129a MN 1.Google Scholar

³⁴ thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129a MN 13; Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at § 129a MN 49; Kai Lohse, supra note 30, at § 129a MN 14.Google Scholar

³⁵ See e.g. Council Framework Decision of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism (OJ L 164 at 3), amended by Council Framework Decision of 28 November 2008 (OJ L 330 at 21); for further information, see Eugenia Dumitriu, The E.U.'s Defintion of Terrorism: The Council Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism, 5 ger. l. j. 585 (2004); Thomas Weigend, supra note 29, at 164; mark zöller, supra note 4, at 148, 168, 173.Google Scholar

³⁶ See the Federal Court of Justice BGH, 29 Neue Zeitschrift für Strafrecht 147 et seq. (2008); Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at § 129a MN 56, 65; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129a MN 2a.Google Scholar

³⁷ Likewise thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129a MN 13.Google Scholar

³⁸ But mark zöller, supra note 4, at 213, 555, with vague proposal pleads for abolition of the catalogue.Google Scholar

³⁹ josef grässler-münscher, der tatbestand der kriminellen vereinigung (§ 129 StGB) aus historischer und systematischer sicht (The conditions of criminal association for a historic and systematic review) 3 (1982); Rupert von Plottnitz, § 129a StGB: Ein Symbol als ewiger Hoffnungsträger, 35 Zeitschrift für Rechtspolitik 351 (2002).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Federal Law Gazette (BGBl.) II 1006. Ratified as a result of the approval law of 16 March 2011 (Federal Law Gazette [BGBl.] II 300).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Convention of 16 December 1970 for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft; Convention of 23 September 1971 on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation; Convention of 14 December 1973 on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents; International Convention of 17 December 1979 Against the Taking of Hostages; Convention of 3 March 1980 on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material; Protocol of 24 February 1988 on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation; Convention of 10 March 1988 for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation; Protocol of 10 March 1988 for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf; International Convention of 15 December 1997 for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings; International Convention of 9 December 1999 for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism; International Convention of 13 April 2005 for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism.Google Scholar

⁴² The law is clear; see also thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129a MN 21.Google Scholar

⁴³ Fröba, Christian, die reichweite des § 129 StGB bei der bekämpfung des transnationalen islamistischen terrorismus (The scope of the penal code § 129 in the fight against transnational terrorism) 13 (2009); Rainer Griesbaum, Zum Verhältnis der Strafverfolgung und Gefahrenabwehr vor dem Hintergrund der Bedrohung durch den internationalen islamistischen Terrorismus (On the relationship of law enforcement and security in light of the threat of international Islamic terrorism), strafrecht und Justizgewährung. festschrift für kay nehm 125 (Rainer Griesbaum et. al. eds., 2006).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ See Pfleger, Klaus, die rote-armee-fraktion (The red-army-faction) 73 (2011); mark zöller, supra note 4, at 39, and in general butz peters, raf-terrorismus in Deutschland (RAF terrorism in Germany, 1993); sozialrevolutionärer terrorismus (Revolutionary Social Terrorism, Alexander Straßner ed., 2008).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ See mark zöller, supra note 4, at 17. An example: the “Catechism of a Revolutionary” (1869), written by Sergey Nechayev, knowing only the science of destroying “the whole filthy order.”Google Scholar

⁴⁶ For more on this christian fröba, supra note 43; peter heine, terror in allahs namen (Terror in the name of Allah, 2004); Frank Neubacher, Terrorismus – Was haben “Rote-Armee-Fraktion” und “Jihadisten” gemeinsam? (Terrorism: What do “Red Army Faction” and “jihadists” have in common?), 32 Jura 744 (2010); Johannes urban, die bekämpfung des Internationalen islamistischen terrorismus (The fight against the international Islamist terrorism, 2006); mark zöller, supra note 4, at 45.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See recently the Federal Court of Justice BGH, 65 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 327, 327 et seq. (2012) (classification of associations as domestic or abroad) and BGHSt 56, 28, 30 et seq. (domestic part of an association abroad).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ BGHSt 56, 28 (offence abroad of a German) and BGHSt 54, 264 (defining the term victim).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Namely the territorial principle (Section 3 StGB), the active personality principle (Section 7 subsection 2 StGB) and the passive personality principle (Section 7 subsection 1 StGB).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ For further information, see mark zöller, supra note 4, at 331.Google Scholar

⁵¹ See BGHSt 54, 264, 267, and thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129b MN 4; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129b MN 3; Ulrich Stein, Kriminelle und terroristische Vereinigungen mit Auslandsbezug seit der Einführung von § 129b StGB (Criminal and terrorist associations with an international dimension since the introduction of 129b), 152 goltdammer's archiv für strafrecht 433, 455 (2005).Google Scholar

⁵² For efforts on restriction, see BGHSt 54, 264, 267; Brian Valerius, Internationaler Terrorismus und nationales Strafanwendungsrecht (International terrorism and national criminal law application), 158 goltdammer's archiv für strafrecht 696 (2011).Google Scholar

⁵³ See mark zöller, supra note 4, at 543.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Likewise Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129b MN 8; Jürgen Schäfer, supra note 19, at § 129b MN 26.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ See, for example, Werner Ogris, De sententiis ex plenitudine potestatis, festschrift für hermann krause 171 (Sten Gagnér, Hans Schlosser & Wolfgang Wiegand, eds., 1975); jürgen regge, kabinettsjustiz in brandenburgpreußen (The cabinet of justice in Brandenburg-Prussia, 1977).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ GVG: Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz = German Code on Court Constitution.Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Cf. thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129b MN 12; Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at 129a/b MN 12; ulrich stein, systematischer kommentar zum Strafgesetzbuch (Systematic commentary on the criminal code), 129b MN 7 (Jürgen Walter et. al., eds., 2005).Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Sections 12 and 74 IRG (= Gesetz über die Rechtshilfe in Strafsachen; Act on International Cooperation in Criminal Matters).Google Scholar

⁵⁹ See, for example, Jürgen Schäfer, supra note 19, at § 129 MN 1, § 129a MN 1.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Detailed treatment of the extension of the scope of criminal liability: grenzen der vorverlagerung in einem tatstrafrecht (Wolfgang Gropp, Ferenc Nagy & Arndt Sinn, eds, 2011); Liane Wörner, Expanding Criminal Laws by Means of Predating Criminal Responsibility, 13 (9) germ. l. j. 1037-1055 (2012).Google Scholar

⁶¹ Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at § 129 MN 8.Google Scholar

⁶² thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129 MN 4, § 129a MN 3; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at §129a MN 1; Kai Lohse supra note 30, at § 129a MN 6; Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at § 129a/b MN 5.Google Scholar

⁶³ Cf. the Federal Court of Justice BGH, 28 neue zeitschrift für strafrecht 147 (2008); Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at § 129 MN 9.Google Scholar

⁶⁴ See e.g. High Court Munich (OLG München), 60 neue juristische wochenschrift 2787 (2007); martin fürst, grundlagen und grenzen der § 129, 129a StGB (Foundations and Limitations § 129, 129 Criminal Code) 68 (1989); roland hefendehl, kollektive rechtsgüter im strafrecht (Collective goods by criminal law) 287 et seq. (2002); Olaf Hohmann, Zur eingeschränkten Anwendbarkeit von § 129 StGB auf Wirtschaftsdelikte (Limited applicability of 129 of the Criminal Code on economic crimes), 11 wistra 85, 86 (1992); Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at 129 MN 5; bernd scheiff, wann beginnt der strafrechtsschutz gegen kriminelle vereinigungen (§ 129 StGB)? (When starting criminal protection against criminal organization) 25 (1997); Hans-Joachim Rudolphi & Ulrich Stein, systematischer kommentar zum strafgesetzbuch (Systematic commentary on the penal code), § 129 MN 3 (Jürgen Walter et. al. eds., 2005).Google Scholar

⁶⁵ In this respect, e.g. BGHSt 28, 110, 116; 30, 328, 331; 31, 202, 207; 41, 47, 51 u. 53;thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129 MN 2; Manfred Hofmann, Anmerkung zu OLG Düsseldorf, 1997-09-15, VI 2697, 3 neue zeitschrift für strafrecht 249 (1998), (Note to OLG Dusseldorf, 1997-09-15, VI 2697), juristische rundschau 208 (1996); Christoph Krehl, Anmerkung zu BGH, 1995-02-22, 3 StR 583/94; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129 MN 1; Jürgen Schäfer, supra note 19 at § 129 MN 1.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ See helmut frister, schuldprinzip, verbot der verdachtsstrafe und unschuldvermutung als materielle grundprinzipien des strafrechts (Principles of faith, interdict of the punishment of suspects and presumption of innocence as basic principles of criminal law, 1988); Hans Joachim Hirsch, Das Schuldprinzip und seine Funktion im Strafrecht (The principle of fault and its role in the criminal justice system), 106 zeitschrift für die gesamte strafrechtswissenschaft 746 (1994); arthur kaufmann, das schuldprinzip (The fault principle, 1976).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ See e.g. BVerfGE 45, 187, 253 et seq.; Henning Radtke & Mark Steinsiek, Terrorismusbekämpfung durch Vorfeldkriminalisierung? (Fight against terrorism by criminalizing the run), juristische rundschau 107, 108 (2010).Google Scholar

⁶⁸ kai thorsten barisch, die bekämpfung des internationalen terrorismus durch § 129b StGB (The fight against international terrorism by penal code § 129B) 41 (2009).Google Scholar

⁶⁹ In this respect, see mark zöller, supra note 13, at 509.Google Scholar

⁷⁰ tim nikolas müller, präventive freiheitsentziehungen als instrument der terrorismusbekämpfung (Preventive deprivation of freedom as a fight against the tool of terrorism) 137 (2011).Google Scholar

⁷¹ See also BVerfGE 4, 7, 18; 30, 292, 332; 36, 321, 330; 109, 133, 157; 120, 224; ivo appel, verfassung und strafe (Constitution and Punishment) 204 (1998); Weigend, Thomas, leipziger kommentar zum strafgesetzbuch (Leipzig commentary on the penal code), Introduction, MN 2 (Heinrich Wilhelm Laufhütte, Ruth Rissing-van Saan & Klaus Tiedemann eds., 2006).Google Scholar

⁷² In this respect, see kai thorsten barisch, supra note 68, at 106 (2009).Google Scholar

⁷³ See the High Court Munich (OLG München), 60 neue juristische Wochenschrift 2786, 2788 (2007); Hans-Joachim Rudolphi, supra note 64, at § 129 MN 3; mark zöller, supra note 13, at 512 (2009).Google Scholar

⁷⁴ In this respect, see e.g. BGHSt 30, 228, 231; 41, 47, 51; thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129 MN 2.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ See again, supra note 7.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ On the concept of founding, see Federal Court of Justice BGHSt 27, 327; BGH, 59 neue juristische wochenschrift 1603 (2006); thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129 MN 23; Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at § 129 MN 101; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129 MN 12a; Hans-Joachim Rudolphi, supra note 64, at § 129 MN 14; Bernd Scheiff, supra note 64, at 69.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ For a definition, see the BGHSt 18, 296; 29, 114; 54, 69, 111; 56, 312; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129 MN 13; Hans-Joachim Rudolphi, supra note 64, at § 129 MN 16. See also BGHSt 29, 121 (not merely membership) and thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129 MN 24; Wolfgang Fleischer, Verhältnis von Dauerstraftat und Einzelstraftaten, 32 neue juristische Wochenschrift 1337, 1338 (1979); Hans-Joachim Rudolphi, supra note 64, at § 129 MN 16a: more than paying member's subscription. On membership in terrorist associations abroad, see BGH, 16 neue zeitschrift für strafrecht-rechtsprechungsreport 372 (2011).Google Scholar

⁷⁸ As a result of the 34^th Criminal Code Amending Law (34. StÄndG) of 22 August 2002 (Federal Law Gazette [BGBl.] I 3390).Google Scholar

⁷⁹ For this, see the Bundestag's printed paper (BT-Drs.) 14/8893, 8; sarah breidenbach, die strafrechtliche Bekämpfung terroristischer Vereinigungen (Fighting criminal terrorist associations) 35 (2009).Google Scholar

⁸⁰ On attempts at a definition, see BGHSt 29, 99, 101; 32, 243, 244 and now BGHSt 51, 345, 348; 54, 69, 116; thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129 MN 30; Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at § 129 MN 132, 163; Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129 MN 15; Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at § 129 MN 20.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Likewise BGHSt 20, 89; 29, 99, 101; thomas fischer, supra note 18, at § 129 MN 30; Matthias Krauß, supra note 19, at 129 MN 132, 163; Heribert Ostendorf, supra note 22, at § 129 MN 20; Hans-Joachim Rudolphi, supra note 64, at § 127 MN 14; critically Theodor Lenckner, supra note 21, at § 129 MN 15.Google Scholar

⁸² On definition, see BGHSt 51, 345, 348 et seq.; 54, 69, 116 et seq. Google Scholar

⁸³ Friedrich Nietzsche, beyond good and evil IV, at no. 146.Google Scholar