¹ A technical definition will be given in C. II. 2.Google Scholar

² Engert, 4 German Law Journal No. 7 (1 July 2003), 685 (687), available at: http://www.germanlawjournal.org/article.php?id=290 (31 Jan. 2005).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³ Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend, Projektgruppe EuRi (Ministry for Family, Senior Citizens, Women and Youths, Project Group European Directives, BMFSFJ) Entwurf eines Gesetzes zur Umsetzung europäischer Antidiskriminierungsvorschriften (Draft of a European AntiDiscrimination Provisions’ Transformation Act, ADG).), 15 Dec. 2004, available at: http://dip.bundestag.de/btd/15/045/1504538.pdf (31 Jan. 2005); Initial reports and statements on the draft can be found in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 12 Nov. 2004, 11; Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 30 Nov. 2004, 11; Kölner Stadt Anzeiger, 17 Nov. 2004, 2 and Kölnische Rundschau, 21 Jan. 2005, 3, available at: http://www.anti-diskriminierung.info Google Scholar

⁴ Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ 2000 L 180/22); Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation (OJ 2000 L 303/16); Council Directive 2002/73/EC of 23 Sept. 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions (OJ 2002 L 269/15); Consolidated Version of Directive 76/207/EEC (non-official) at: http://www.bmfsfj.de/Politikbereiche/Gleichstellung/eu-richtlinien.html (31 Jan. 2005). In addition, the draft aims at implementing the newly published Council Directive 2004/113/EC of 13 December 2004 implementing the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and supply of goods and services (OJ 2004 L 373/37), see Begründung (explanatory note) to the ADG, 31, 81. The Directive 2004/113/EC represents the final version of the Proposal for a Council Directive implementing the principle of equal treatment between women and men in the access to and supply of goods and services, 5 Nov. 2003 (COM 2003 657 final).Google Scholar

⁵ The Directive 2000/43/EC had to be transformed into national law by 19 July 2003 (Art. 16) and the implementation of Directive 2000/78/EC was due by 2 Dec. 2003 (Art. 18 para 1). The failed transformation is not a genuine German phenomenon: other European countries have also experienced difficulties in the transformation process. For an overview on the progress of transformation in the EU Member States, see http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/fundamental_rights/public/pubst_de.htm#Umsetzung (31 Jan. 2005). On the effect of the non-transformed Directives 2000/43/EG and 2000/78/EG: Thüsing, Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2003, 3441 ff.; In general on the consequences of lacking or wrongful transformation of Directives, see Gstaltmeyr, Bewehrung von EG-Richtlinien: Sanktionssysteme bei fehlender oder fehlerhafter Umsetzung durch die Mitgliedstaaten, 1998; Schroeder in: Streinz, EUV/EGV, 2003, Art. 249 para 101 ff., 125 ff., Gellermann in: Streinz, EUV/EGV, 2003, Art. 288 para 36 ff.; Bleckmann, Europarecht, 6th Ed. 1997, para 431 ff., 1038 ff.; Streinz, Europarecht, 6th Ed. 2003, para 394 ff.Google Scholar

⁶ Council Directive 2004/113/EC of 13 December 2004 implementing the principle of equal treatment between men and women in the access to and supply of goods and services (OJ 2004 L 373/37).Google Scholar

⁷ Art. 3 para 1 will provide: “Within the limits of the powers conferred upon the Community, this Directive shall apply to all persons who provide goods and services, which are available to the public irrespective of the person concerned … and which are offered outside the area of private and family life and the transactions carried out in this context.“Google Scholar

⁸ Bundesministerium der Justiz (Federal Ministry of Justice, BMJ), Diskussionsentwurf eines Gesetzes zur Verhinderung von Diskriminierungen im Zivilrecht (Discussion Draft of an Act to Prevent Discrimination in Private Law, DiskE 2001), 10. Dec. 2001.Google Scholar

⁹ Bundesministerium der Justiz (Federal Ministry of Justice, BMJ), Diskussionsentwurf eines Gesetzes zur Verhinderung von Diskriminierungen im Zivilrecht – Überarbeitung auf Grund der Besprechungen und Stellungnahmen (Revised Discussion Draft of an Act to Prevent Discrimination in Private Law, DiskE 2002), 17 Feb. 2002.Google Scholar

¹⁰ BMFSFJ, Entwurf eines Gesetzes zum Schutz vor Diskriminierungen (Draft of an Act for the Protection from Discrimination in Private Law, ADG), 6 May 2004. The ADG consisted of three independent laws, the Gesetz über die Stelle des Bundes zum Schutz vor Diskriminierungen (Act on the Federal Body for the Protection from Discrimination, ADSG), the Gesetz zum Schutz vor Diskriminierungen in Beschäftigung und Beruf (Act on the Protection from Discrimination in Employment and Occupation, AADG)” and the Gesetz zur Änderung des Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuchs – Regelungen zum Schutz vor Diskriminierungen im Zivilrecht (Act on the Amendment of the German Civil Code – Regulations on the Protection from Discrimination in Private Law, ZADG).Google Scholar

¹¹ These centered mainly on the question, if the Directives should be transformed the way they existed or if additional grounds of discrimination should be banned in German law, i.e. the scope of an antidiscrimination code.Google Scholar

¹² Art. 13 EC was inserted into the EC Treaty at the intergovernmental conference of Amsterdam to combat racism, xenophobia and other discriminatory practices. It provides that “without prejudice to the other provisions of this Treaty and within the limits of the powers conferred upon the Community, the Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the European Parliament, may take appropriate action to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation.“Google Scholar

¹³ With regard to these drafts, see the contributions by Baer, Mahlmann and Nickel in 1 Annual of German & European Law 2003, 323, 334, and 353 (Russell Miller/Peer Zumbansen, eds., 2004) and, very instructive, Engert, 4 German Law Journal (1 July 2003), 685, available at: http://www.germanlawjournal.org/article.php?id=290 (31 Jan. 2005), who argues that there is an economic case for antidiscrimination legislation. With regard to the DiskE 2001, see the debate in 3 German Law Journal (2002) with contributions by Vennemann, Ladeur, and Winkler, available at: http://www.germanlawjournal.org/article.php?id=137, http://www.germanlawjournal.org/article.php?id=152 and http://www.germanlawjournal.org/article.php?id=158 (31 Jan. 2005). See also Picker, 5 German Law Journal (1 Aug. 2004), 771, available at: http://www.germanlawjournal.org/article.php?id=298 (31 Jan. 2005); Mahlmann, 5 Zeitschrift für Europarechtliche Studien (2002), 407 and Selbmann, 2 European Yearbook of Minority Issues (2002/03), 675.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Bundesverfassungsgericht (German Constitutional Court, BVerfG) E 7 (1958), 198, 205.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Section 138 para 1 BGB provides: “A legal transaction which is against public policy is void.“ (transl. by author)Google Scholar

¹⁶ Section 826 BGB provides: “A person who wilfully causes damage to another in a manner contrary to public policy is bound to compensate the other for the damage.“ (transl. by author)Google Scholar

¹⁷ BVerfGE 7 (1958), 198 (206); Selbmann, 2 European Yearbook of Minority Issues (2002/03), 675 (677).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Mahlmann, Executive Summary – Discrimination on the ground of race or ethnic origin – Germany, 23 June 2004, at http://europa.eu.int/comm/employment_social/fundamental_rights/pdf/aneval/race_de.pdf (31 Jan. 2005).Google Scholar

¹⁹ The Landgericht (Regional Court) Karlsruhe, Neue Juristische Wochenschrift – Rechtsprechungsreport 2002, 111, has interpreted section 826 BGB as giving the claimant a right of access to the federation in question. In comparison, the Kammergericht (Higher Regional Court Berlin), Neue Juristische Wochenschrift – Rechtsprechungsreport 1993, 183, that dealt with a similar case a few years earlier was more hesitant. See Vennemann, 3 German Law Journal (2002), para 13 (supra note 13) and Begründung (explanatory note) to the DiskE 2001, 18.Google Scholar

²⁰ Mahlmann, Executive Summary – Discrimination on the ground of race or ethnic origin – Germany, 23 June 2004, 6.Google Scholar

²¹ A more detailed overview is given in Mahlmann, Anti-Discrimination Legislation in EU Member States – A Comparison of National Anti-Discrimination Legislation on the Grounds of Racial or Ethnic Orighin, Religion or Belief with the Council Directives – Germany, Report prepared by Matthias Mahlmann under the guidance of Migration Policy Group, (Jan Niessen/Isabelle Chopin, eds.) on behalf of the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (Vienna, 2002), 15-22 at http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/pub/Art13/ART13_Germany-en.pdf (31 Jan. 2005). and Vennemann, 3 German Law Journal (2002), para 7 et seq. (supra note 13).Google Scholar

²² Section 20 para 1 No. 1 ADG provides that a different treatment is unlawful in “Schuldverhältnisse[n], die typischerweise ohne Ansehen der Person zu vergleichbaren Bedingungen in einer Vielzahl von Fällen zustande kommen (Massengeschäfte) oder bei denen das Ansehen der Person nach der Art des Schuldverhältnisses eine nachrangige Bedeutung hat und die zu vergleichbaren Bedingungen in einer Vielzahl von Fällen zustande kommen…”.Google Scholar

²³ Art. 3 para 1 provides: “…goods and services which are available to the public irrespective of the person concerned…and which are offered outside the area of private and family life and the transactions carried out in this context”. While the first part stems from the proposal of the German delegation: “…goods and services which are available to the public, and which are typically made available in many cases under the same conditions irrespective of the person concerned‥.“ (Council document 12841/04, 30 Sept. 2004, 16 Footnote 13), the second part takes up the wording of recital 13 of the Directive 2004/113/EC. The Begründung (explanatory note) to the ADG, 82 innocently suggests, that by using the term Massengeschäfte, the draft would simply implement Art. 3 para 1 of the Directive 2004/113/EC.Google Scholar

²⁴ For a detailed description of what is “available to the public”, taking into account the drafting history, the international background and the experiences in different EU Member States, see Schöbener/Stork, 7 ZEuS (2004), 43 (65 et seq.), available at: http://www.jura.uni-sb.de/projekte/Bibliothek/texte/SchoebStork.pdf (31 Jan. 2005). See also Schöbener/Stork 8 ZEuS (2005), soon to be published.Google Scholar

²⁵ In this context, the Commission mentions as examples the renting of a holiday home to a family member or the letting of a room in a private house (COM 2003 657, 13).Google Scholar

²⁶ Otto, Personale Freiheit und soziale Bindung, 1978, 148 ff.; Bezzenberger, AcP 196 (1996), 395 (415); Delbrück in: Schneider/Götz (Eds.), Festschrift für Werner Weber, 1974, 223 (238).Google Scholar

²⁷ Neuner, Juristenzeitung 2003, 57 (63).Google Scholar

²⁸ COM 2003 657, 13; The Commission's explanation refers to the earlier wording of Directive 2004/113/EC: Similarly to Directive 2000/43/EC, discrimination was initially deemed unlawful, when the goods and services in question were “available to the public”.Google Scholar

²⁹ Thüsing, Juristenzeitung 2004, 172 (174).Google Scholar

³⁰ See the Directives 85/577/EEC, 87/102/EEC, 93/13/EEC, 94/47/EC, 97/7/EC, 1999/44/EC.Google Scholar

³¹ Heinrichs in: Palandt (ed.), BGB, 64th ed. 2005, Anh nach § 319 para 6, does not use these terms explicitly, however, his interpretation of the formulation corresponds to this article's suggestions.Google Scholar

³² Plötscher, Der Begriff der Diskriminierung im Europäischen Gemeinschaftsrecht, 2003; Hailbronner, Zeitschrift für Ausländerrecht 2001, 254 (256-257).Google Scholar

³³ Wohlfahrt in: Wohlfahrt/Everling/Glaesner/Sprung, Die Europäische Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft, Commentary, 1960, Art. 7 EWGV para 1.Google Scholar

³⁴ ECJ C-43/75, ECR I-1976, 455 para 8 et seq. (Defrenne/Sabena); ECJ C-50/96, ECR 2000, I-743 para 57 (Schröder).Google Scholar

³⁵ Especially the Starting Line Group (SLG), formed in 1991, must be mentioned by name. Today it is an informal network of about 400 organisations from the EU Member States. The SLG has been campaigning long time for the creation of a Directive to combat racism and xenophobia, the so-called “Starting Line”. On the origins of Art. 13 EC see Chopin, EJML 1 (1999), 111 ff.; Bell, MJ 6 (1999), 5 (6 ff.); Bell/Waddington, ILJ 25 (1996), 320 ff.; European Network against Racism (Ed.), Campaigning against racism and xenophobia from a legislative perspective at European level, 1999, 3, at: http://www.migpolgroup.com/uploadstore/ENARcampe.pdf (31 Jan. 2005); Khan, The Muslim Lawyer 3 (Sept. 1999), 1 ff., at: http://www.aml.org.uk/journal (31 Jan. 2005)Google Scholar

³⁶ Art. 2 para 2 lit. a Directive 2000/43/EC; Art. 2 para 2 lit. a Directive 2000/78/EC; Art. 2 lit. a Directive 2004/113/EC; Art. 2 para 2 Directive 2002/73/EC; Directive 76/207/EEC does not contain a definition of direct discrimination, yet it is prohibited by Art. 2 para 1.Google Scholar

³⁷ Art. 2 para 2 lit. b Directive 2000/43/EC; Art. 2 para 2 lit. b Directive 2000/78/EC; Art. 2 lit. b Directive 2004/113/EC; Art. 2 para 2 Directive 2002/73/EC; Directive 76/207/EEC does not contain a definition of indirect discrimination, yet it is prohibited in Art. 2 para 1.Google Scholar

³⁸ Art. 2 para 4 Directive 2000/43/EC; Art. 2 para 4 Directive 2000/78/EC; Art. 4 para 4 Directive 2004/113/EC (initially, the Commission proposed the use of the term “incitement”, rather than “instruction” in the English text, in order to align the meanings of the language versions, COM 2003 657, 14); Art. 2 para 4 Directive 2002/73/EC; Directive 76/207/EEC neither contains a definition nor an explicit prohibition of the instruction, respectively incitement to discriminate.Google Scholar

³⁹ Art. 2 para 3 Directive 2000/43/EC; Art. 2 para 3 Directive 2000/78/EC; Art. 2 lit. c Directive 2004/113/EC; Art. 2 para 2 and 2 para 3 Directive 2002/73/EC; Directive 76/207/EEC neither contained a definition nor an explicit prohibition of harassment.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Art. 2 lit. d Directive 2004/113/EC; Art. 2 para 2 and 2 para 3 2002/73/EC; Directive 76/207/EEC neither contained a definition nor an explicit prohibition of sexual harassment.Google Scholar

⁴¹ For a detailed analysis see Schöbener/Stork 8 ZEuS (2005), soon to be published.Google Scholar

⁴² Vennemann, 3 German Law Journal (2002), para 18 (supra note 13)Google Scholar

⁴³ Section 7 para 3 of the dutch Algemene wet gelijke behandeling (Equal Treatment Act, AWGB), 1 Sept. 1994, contains a similar provision in order to protect the private and family life: “S u b s ection 1 (a and d) shall not apply to requirements which may reasonably be imposed having regard to the private nature of the circumstances to which the legal relationship applies.“ At: http://www.cgb.nl/english/asp/awgb.asp (31 Jan. 2005).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ The principle of proportionality is not contained in the text of the underlying Art. 5 of the Directive 2000/43/EC. However, the Commission explicitly recognizes this principle with regard to positive action: “Such measures must be shown to be necessary, focused on overcoming a specific disadvantage and must be limited in time, being in force no longer than is necessary to deal with the problem identified.” (COM 2003 657, 14).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Explanatory note to the DiskE 2001, 47.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Explanatory note to the ADG, 88.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ The provisions on private insurance, sections 20 para 1 No. 2 and 21 No. 5 serve to implement Art. 5 para 2 and 3 of Directive 2004/113/EC, cf. Begründung (explanatory note) to the ADG, 92.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Section 23 ADG provides: “Wenn im Streitfall die eine Partei Tatsachen glaubhaft macht, die eine Benachteiligung wegen eines in § 1 genannten Grundes vermuten lassen, trägt die andere Partei die Beweislast dafür, dass andere als in § 1 genannte, sachliche Gründe die unterschiedliche Behandlung rechtfertigen oder die unterschiedliche Behandlung wegen eines in § 1 genannten Grundes nach Maßgabe dieses Gesetzes zulässig ist.“Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Vennemann, (supra note 13), para 22.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Vgl. Bezzenberger, Archiv für die civilistische Praxis 196 (1996), 395 (427 ff.); Neuner, Juristenzeitung 2003, 57 (64); Otto, Personale Freiheit und soziale Bindung, 1978, 165 f.; Bork in: Staudinger, 2003, Vorbem zu §§ 145-156 para 24 (all without reference to the Directive 2000/43/EC); Heinrichs in: Palandt (ed.), BGB, 64th ed. 2005, Einf § 145 para 10 and Anh nach § 319 para 20, who comes to this conclusion with regard to the effect of the non-implemented Directive 2000/43/EC.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Neuner, Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2000, 1822 (1829) argues, that the obligation to contract is also a proportionate sanction in cases of discrimination on grounds of disability.Google Scholar

⁵² See on this issue Steinbrück, Jura 2004, 439.Google Scholar

⁵³ ECJ C-180/95, ECR 1997, I-2195 para 22 (Draempaehl); So states ECJ C-177/88, ECR 1990, I-3941 para 22 (Dekker): “…the Directive [76/207/EEC] does not make liability on the part of the person guilty of discrimination conditional in any way on proof of fault or on the absence of any ground discharging such liability.” Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Engert, 4 German Law Journal (2003), 685 (689): At least under a taste theory of discrimination, systematic discrimination on a large scale is unlikely to persist.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Engert, 4 German Law Journal (2003), 685 (698). Statistical discrimination occurs when a person has a certain trait, propensity, or disposition that matters (economically) for the other party to the contract because it can cause some extra cost. Discrimination in insurance premiums is paradigmatic of statistical discrimination, see Engert, 4 German Law Journal (2003), 685 (689 et seq.).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See on this issue with regard to sex discrimination Schöbener/Stork 8 ZEuS (2005), soon to be published and Riesenhuber/Franck, Juristenzeitung 2004, 529 (536 et seq.).Google Scholar