² One indication of the current position of the subject is the synthesis for Europe by Kindleberger, C. P., A Financial History of Western Europe (London, 1984)Google Scholar, while another, but with the same geographical limitations, is Bogaert, R., Kurgan van Hentenryk, G. and van der Wee, H. [sous la direction de H. van der Wee], La Banque en Occident (Antwerp, 1991).Google Scholar

³ Gregory, T. E., The Westminster Bank through a Century, 2 vols (London, 1936)Google Scholar; Crick, W. F. and Wadsworth, J. E., A Hundred Years of Joint Stock Banking (London, 1936) [a history of the Midland Bank and its progenitors].Google Scholar

⁴ Cameron, R., Banking in the Early Stages of Industrialisation: A Study in Comparative Economic History (Oxford, 1967)Google Scholar; and idem (ed.), Banking and Economic Development: Some Lessons of History (New York, 1972).Google Scholar

⁵ Inspirational studies, which opened up the ground, include: Pressnell, L. S., Country Banking in the Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1956)Google Scholar; Landes, D. S., Bankers and Pashas: International Finance and Economic Imperialism in Egypt (London, 1958)Google Scholar; Bouvier, J., Le Crédit Lyonnais de 1863 à 1882: les années de formation d'une banque de dépôts, 2 vols (Paris, 1961)Google Scholar; and Lévy-Leboyer, M., Les Banques européennes et l'industrialisation internationale dans la première moitié du XIXe siècle (Paris, 1964).Google Scholar

⁶ See Larsson, M., ‘Government subsidy or internal restructing? Swedish commercial banks during the crisis years of the 1920s’Google Scholar, and Sjöogren, H., ‘Swedish commercial banks: the distribution of their advances by economic sectors and geographical regions’, both in Cottrell, P. L., Lindgren, H. and Teichova, A. (eds), European Industry and Banking Between the Wars: A Review of Bank–Industry Relations (Leicester, 1992).Google Scholar

⁷ Chandler, A. D. Jr, Strategy and Structure (Cambridge, Mass., 1962)Google Scholar; The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977)Google Scholar; and Scale and Scope (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).Google Scholar

⁸ However, this is not to deny that such an approach, applying the work of, for instance, Gurley, J. G. and Shaw, E. S. (Money in a Theory of Finance, Washington, DC, 1960)Google Scholar, led to a greater understanding, as exemplified by that of Cameron and his associates. For a recent review of their contribution, see Pollard, S. and Ziegler, D., ‘Banking and industrialization: Rondo Cameron twenty years on’, in Cassis, Y. (ed.), Finance and Financiers in European History, 1880–1960 (Cambridge/Paris, 1992).Google Scholar

A recent change in the interest of business historians is indicated by a recent number of Business History, 33.3 (07 1991), edited by Jones, G., which was a special issue on Banks and Money: International and Comparative Finance in History.Google Scholar

⁹ Gregory, , Westminster Bank.Google Scholar

¹⁰ SirClapham, J. H., The Bank of England: A History, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1944).Google Scholar This was followed by Sayers' equally fine continuation, The Bank of England 1891–1944, 3 vols (Cambridge, 1976Google Scholar). The Bank has turned to ‘insiders’ for its most recent considerations of its continuing development; see most particularly Fforde, J., The Bank of England and Public Policy, 1941–1958 (Cambridge, 1992)Google Scholar, but also Hennessy, E., A Domestic History of the Bank of England 1930–1960 (Cambridge, 1992).CrossRefGoogle Scholar This has been complemented, but for the nineteenth century, by the recently published doctoral work of Ziegler, D.: Das Korsett der ‘Alten Dame’. Die Geschäftspolitik der Bank of England 1844–1913, Schriftenreihe des Institituts für bankhistorische Forschung e. V, 15 (Frankfurt-a.-M., 1990)Google Scholar; and, translated by Martin, E., Central Bank, Peripheral Industry: The Bank of England in the Provinces 1826–1913 (Leicester/London, 1990).Google Scholar

¹¹ Sayers, R. S., Lloyds Bank in the History of English Banking (Oxford, 1957).Google Scholar

¹² Dickson, P. G. M., The Sun Insurance Office, 1710–1960 (London, 1960).Google Scholar

¹³ Burk, K., Morgan Grenfell 1838–1988: The Biography of a Merchant Bank (Oxford, 1989)Google Scholar; Roberts, R., Schroders: Merchants & Bankers (1992).Google Scholar

¹⁴ King, F. H. H., The History of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, vol. I: The Hongkong Bank in Late Imperial China 1864–1902: On an Even Keel (Cambridge, 1987)Google Scholar; vol. II: The Hongkong Bank in the Period of Imperialism and War, 1895–1918: Wayfoong, the Focus of Wealth (Cambridge, 1988)Google Scholar; vol. III: The Hongkong Bank between the Wars and the Bank Interned, 1919–1945: Return from Grandeur (Cambridge, 1988)Google Scholar; and vol. IV: The Hongkong Bank in the Period of Development and Nationalism, 1941–1984: From Regional Bank to Multinational Group (Cambridge, 1991).Google Scholar

¹⁵ Jones, G., The History of the British Bank of the Middle East, vol. I: Banking and Empire in Iran (Cambridge, 1986)Google Scholar; and vol. II: Banking and Oil (Cambridge, 1987).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Supple, B., The Royal Exchange Assurance: A History of British Insurance 1720–1970 (Cambridge, 1970)Google Scholar; Trebilcock, C., Phoenix Assurance and the Development of British Insurance, vol. I: 1782–1870 (Cambridge, 1987)Google Scholar; Westall, O., The Provincial Insurance Company 1903–1938: Family, Market and Competitors (Manchester, 1993).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Reader, W. J., A House in the City: A Study of the City and the Stock Exchange based on the records of Foster & Braithwaite 1825–1975 (London, 1979)Google Scholar; Kynaston, D., Cazenove & Co: A History (London, 1991).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Kynaston, D., The Financial Times (London, 1988).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Baster, A. J., The Imperial Banks (London, 1929)Google Scholar; idem, The International Banks (London, 1935).Google Scholar

²⁰ Rudin, R., Banking en français: The French Banks of Quebec, 1835–1925 (Toronto, 1985)Google Scholar; McCullough, A. B., Money and Exchange in Canada to 1900 (Toronto, 1984)Google Scholar; but see also Merrill, D., Canada's First Bank: A History of the Bank of Montreal, 2 vols (Toronto, 1966).Google Scholar

²¹ Butlin, S. J., Australia and New Zealand Bank, The Bank of Australasia, and the Union Bank of Australia, 1828–1951 (London, 1961)Google Scholar; Bailey, J. D., A Hundred Years of Pastoral Banking (Oxford, 1966)Google Scholar; Gollan, R., The Commonwealth Bank of Australia: Origins and Early History (Canberra, 1968)Google Scholar; Holder, R. J., Bank of New South Wales, 2 vols (Sydney, 1970)Google Scholar; Hawke, G. R., Between Governments and Banks: A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand (Wellington, 1973)Google Scholar; French, M., A Century of Homemaking: A History of the Toowoomba Permanent Building Society, 1875–1975 (Toowoomba, 1979)Google Scholar; Blainey, G. and Hutton, G., Gold and Paper: A History of the National Bank of Australasia Limited (South Melbourne, 1983)Google Scholar; and Merrett, D., ANZ Bank (Sydney, 1985).Google Scholar

²² A Banking Centenary: Barclays Bank (Dominion, Colonial and Overseas), 1836–1936 (London, 1936)Google Scholar – although predated by Amphlett, G. T., History of the Standard Bank of South Africa Ltd, 1862–1913 (Glasgow, 1914)Google Scholar; idem, A Bank in Battledress (London, 1948)Google Scholar; and Sir Crossley, J. and Blandford, J., The DCO Story (London, 1975)Google Scholar; while reference should also be made to Standard Bank, 1892–1967: Three Quarters of a Century of Banking in Rhodesia (Salisbury, 1967)Google Scholar and Henry, J. A., The First Hundred Years of the Standard Bank (London, 1963).Google Scholar

On other British ‘imperial’ banks in Africa, see Tyson, G., 100 Years of Banking in Asia and Africa (London, 1963)Google Scholar; and Fry, R., Bankers in West Africa (London, 1976).Google Scholar

²³ Bagchi, A. K., The Evolution of the State Bank of India: The Roots, 1806–1876: pt I: The Early Years, 1806–1860; pt II: Diversity and Regrouping, 1860–1876 (Bombay, 1987).Google Scholar

²⁴ Bouvier, J., Le Crédit Lyonnais de 1863 à 1882Google Scholar; Gille, B., Histoire de la Maison Rothschild, 2 vols (Geneva, 1965, 1967)Google Scholar; Plessis, A., La Banque de France et ses deux cents actionnaires sous le Second Empire (Geneva, 1982)Google Scholar; Régents et Gouvemeurs de la Banque de France sous le Second Empire (Geneva, 1985)Google Scholar; and La Politique de la Banque de France sous le Second Empire (Geneva, 1985).Google Scholar

²⁵ Meuleau, M., Des pionniers en Extrême-Orient: la Banque de l'Indochine, 1875–1985 (Paris, 1989)Google Scholar [The path-breaking study of the Banque de l'Indochine by the Japanese scholar, Gonjo, has recently been published as a translation into French] Bussière, E., Paribas. L'Europe et le monde (Antwerp, 1992).Google Scholar

²⁶ An early exception, but of the jubilee kind, is Jöhr, W. A., Schweizerische Kreditanstalt, 1856–1956 (Zürich, 1956)Google Scholar, and there is also Bauer, H., Société de banque Suisse 1872–1972 (Basel, 1972).Google Scholar

²⁷ Stürmer, M., Teichman, G. and Treue, W., Wägen und Wagen. Sal. Oppenheim jr. et Cie. Geschichte einer Bank und einer Familie (Munich/Zürich, 1989).Google Scholar A version in English is currently being prepared.

²⁸ J. L. Garcia and G. Tortella have been commissioned to write a history of the Banco Hispano-Americano and the Banco Central, which merged in 1992 to form the Banco Central Hispano. A professionally written history will be part of the forthcoming jubilee of the Banca Commerciale Italiana.

²⁹ März, E., Oesterreichische Industrie- und Bankpolitik in der Zeit Franz Josephs I. Am Beispiel der k.k. priv. Oesterreichischen Credit-Anstalt für Handel und Gewerbe (Vienna, 1968)Google Scholar; idem, Oesterreichische Bankpolitik in der Zeit der grossen Wende 1913–1923 (Vienna, 1981)Google Scholar, trans. Kessler, C. as Austrian Banking and Financial Policy. Creditanstalt at a Turning Point, 1913–1923 (London, 1984).Google Scholarvan der Wee, H. and Verbeyt, M., Mensen maken Geschiedenis. De Kredietbank en de Economische Opgang van Vlaanderen 1935–1985 (Brussels, 1985)Google Scholar, with an abridged, French version: Les Homines font l'histoire: La Kredietbank et l'essor économiaue de la Flandre 1935–1985. Gasslander, O., Bank och industrellt genombrott, Stockholms Enskilda Bank kring sekelskiftet 1900, 2 vols (Stockholm, 1956, 1960)Google Scholar, translated as History of Stockholms Enskilda Bank to 1914; Olsson, U., Bank, familj och företagande. Stocksholms Enskilda Bank 1946–1971 (Stockholm, 1986)Google Scholar; Lindgren, H., Investmentbolag och bankfirma, Stockholms Eskilda bank 1924–45 (Stockholm, 1987)Google Scholar; and Lundström, R., Bank och utlandsaffärer (Stockholm, 1990)Google Scholar: see also Söderlund, E., Skandinaviska Banken. I det Svenska Bankvasendets Historia, 1864–1914 (Stockholm, 1964)Google Scholar; Thunberg, G., Uplandsbanken 1865–1965 (Uppsala, 1965)Google Scholar; Hildebrand, K.-G., I omvandligens tjänst. Svenska Handelsbanken 1871–1971 (Stockholm, 1971)Google Scholar; Söderlund, E., Skandinaviska Banken i del svenska banwäsendets historia 1914–39 (Uppsala, 1978)Google Scholar; and Ullenhag, K., Vägan mot fusionene. Uplandsbanken 1965–85 (Uppsala, 1990).Google Scholar

³⁰ James, J. A., Money and Capital Markets in Postbellum America (Princeton, NJ, 1978)Google Scholar; Lamoreaux, N., Insider Lending: Banks, Personal Connections and Economic Development in Industrial New England 1789–1912 (Cambridge, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and see also Sylla, R., ‘The United States, 1863–1913’Google Scholar, in Cameron, (ed.), Banking and Economic DevelopmentGoogle Scholar; Carosso, V. P., The Morgans: Private International Bankers, 1854–1913 (Cambridge, Mass., 1987)Google Scholar; Van, H.Cleveland, B. and Huertas, T. F., Citibank 1812–1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1985)Google Scholar;. Wilson, J. D., The Chase (Boston, Mass., 1986).Google Scholar

³¹ Jones, G. (ed.), Banks as Multinationals (London, 1990)Google Scholar; idem, British Multinational Banking 1830–1990 (Oxford, 1993)Google Scholar; Chapman, S. D., The Rise of Merchant Banking (London, 1984).Google Scholar

³² Hilferding, R., Das Finanzkapital (Vienna, 1910)Google Scholar, translated as Finance Capital: A Study of the Latest Phase of Capitalist Development (London, 1981).Google Scholar For a critique, see Winkler, H. A. (ed.), Organisierter Kapitalismus. Votauβetzungen und Anfänge (Göttingen, 1974)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Wellhöner, V., Groβbanken und Groβindustrie im Kaiserreich (Göttingen, 1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³³ Gerschenkron, A., ‘Economic backwardness in historical perspective’, in Hoselitz, B. (ed.), The Progress of Underdeveloped Areas (Chicago, 1952)Google Scholar, reprinted in Gerschenkron, , Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (New York, 1965).Google Scholar

For aspects of the critique, see Barsby, S. L., ‘Economic backwardness and the characteristics of development’, Journal of Economic History, 29 (1969)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cameron, , Banking and Economic DevelopmentGoogle Scholar; Good, D., ‘Backwardness and the role of banking in nineteenth century European industrialization’, Journal of Economic History, 33 (1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sylla, R., ‘Financial intermediaries in economic history: quantitative research on the seminal hypotheses of Lance Davis and Alexander Gerschenkron’, in Gallman, R. E. (ed.), Recent Developments in the Study of Business and Economic History (Greenwich, Conn., 1977)Google Scholar; Tilly, R., ‘Banking institutions in historical and comparative perspective: Germany, Great Britain and the United States in the nineteenth and early twentieth century’, Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 145 (1989)Google Scholar; Sylla, R. and Toniolo, G. (eds), Patterns of European Industrialization (1991)Google Scholar; and Lindgren, H., ‘Introduction: the research agenda and its intellectual setting’Google Scholar, and Teichova, A., ‘Rivals and partners: reflections on banking and industry in Europe 1880–1938’Google Scholar, both in Cottrell, et al. (eds.), European Industry and Banking.Google Scholar

³⁴ Cameron's Report to the V International Congress of Economic History, ‘Banking and credit as factors in economic growth’ (Leningrad, 08 1970)Google Scholar, indicated that it was the first such meeting of the profession to have a session devoted specifically to banking and credit, but pointed to antecedents from the first (Stockholm) congress, then running on through the Aix-en-Provence (where Cameron contributed ‘Theoretical bases of a comparative study of the role of financial institutions in the early stages of industrialisation’), Munich and Bloomington meetings.

³⁵ For one general example, see Pressnell, L. S. and Orbell, J., A Guide to the Historical Records of British Banking, Business Archives Council (Aldershot, 1985).Google Scholar For its part, the Banca Commerciale Italiana has begun to publish a series of guides to its archives, as with Collana Inventari, Serie I, I, Presidenza E Consiglio Di Amtninistrazione (1894–1934) (Milan, 1990)Google Scholar; Serie VI, III, Società Finanziaria Industrial Italiana (Sofindit) (Milan, 1991).Google Scholar Each annual volume of Financial History Review will contain an article discussing banking and financial archives.

³⁶ Plessis, A., ‘Les banques, le crédit et l'économie’, in Lévy-Leboyer, M. and Casanova, J.-Cl. (eds), Entre l'état et le marché: l'économic française de 1880 à nos jours (Paris, 1991)Google Scholar, and the special issue of Entreprises et Histoire, 1.2 (1992) edited by Plessis, Alain.Google Scholar For a survey of the current position of research on the UK see Collins, M., British Banks and Industrial Finance before 1939 (London, 1990).Google Scholar

³⁷ On the debate with respect to the part of the banks, see Neuberger, H. and Stokes, H. H., ‘German banks and German growth: an empirical view’, Journal of Economic History, 34 (1974)Google Scholar; Fremdling, R. and Tilly, R., ‘German banks, German growth and econometric history’, Journal of Economic History, 36 (1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Neuburger, H. M. and Stokes, H. H., ‘German banks and German growth: Reply’, Journal of Economic History, 36 (1976)Google Scholar; Komlos, J., ‘The Kreditbanken and German growth: a postscript’, Journal of Economic History, 38 (1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tilly, R., ‘Mergers, external growth, and finance in the development of large-scale enterprise in Germany, 1880–1913’, Journal of Economic History, 42 (1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, ‘German banking, 1850–1914: development assistance for the strong’, Journal of European Economic History, 15 (1986).Google Scholar Nearly all these contributions to the basic literature have recently been reprinted in Cameron, R. (ed.), Financing Industrialization, 2 vols (Aldershot, 1992)Google Scholar, which also contains relevant ‘revisionist’ material for other countries.

³⁸ Lévy-Leboyer, M. and Lescure, M., ‘France’Google Scholar, in Sylla, R. and Toniolo, G. (eds), Patterns of European IndustrializationGoogle Scholar; Lescure, M., ‘Les banques et le financement des PME dans la France des années 1920’, Entreprises et Histoire, 1 (1992)Google Scholar; Ziegler, D., ‘The origins of the “Macmillan Gap”: Britain and Germany in the twentieth century’, paper presented to the International Workshop on Banks and Customers, London School of Economics (09, 1991)Google Scholar; and Thomes, P., ‘German savings banks as instruments of regional development up to World War Two’, paper presented to International Conference on Financial Institutions and Financial Markets in Twentieth Century Europe and North America, Zürich (05, 1993).Google Scholar

³⁹ Some of the theoretical literature which is now shaping the approach of financial historians includes: Campbell, T. and Kracaw, W., ‘Information production, market signalling and the theory of financial intermediation’, Journal of Finance, 4 (1980)Google Scholar; Fried, J. and Howitt, P., ‘Credit rationing and implicit contract theory’, Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 12 (1980)Google Scholar; Stiglitz, E. and Weiss, A., ‘Credit rationing in markets with imperfect information’, American Economic Review, 71 (1981)Google Scholar; Bester, H., ‘Screening versus rationing in credit markets with imperfect information’, American Economic Review, 73 (1985)Google Scholar; Williamson, O. E., The Economic Institutions of Capitalism (New York, 1985)Google Scholar; Varian, H. R., ‘Differences of opinion in financial markets’, in Stone, C. C. (ed.), Financial Risk: Theory, Evidence and Implications (Boston, Mass., 1987).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ de Roover, R., L'Évolution de la lettre de change XIVe–XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1953)Google Scholar; and, on the contribution of Dutch bankers, van der Wee, H., ‘Anvers et les innovations de la technique financières aux XVIe et XVIIe siècles’, Annales ESC, 22 (1967).Google Scholar

⁴¹ Checkland, S. G., Scottish Banking History, 1695–1973 (Glasgow, 1975)Google Scholar; Munn, C. W., The Scottish Provincial Banking Companies 1747–1864 (Edinburgh, 1981)Google Scholar; idem, ‘The coming of joint-stock banking in Scotland and Ireland, c. 1820–1848’, in Devine, T. and Dickson, D. (eds) Ireland and Scotland 1600–1850 (Edinburgh, 1983).Google Scholar

⁴² Redlich, F., ‘Jacques Lafitte and the beginnings of investment banking in France’, Bulletin of the Business Historical Society, 22 (1948)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Landes, D. S., ‘Vieille Banque et Banque Nouvelle: la révolution financière du dix-neuvième siècle’, Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 3 (1956)Google Scholar, translated as ‘The Old Bank and the New: the financial revolution of the nineteenth century’, in Crouzet, F., Chaloner, W. H. and Stern, W. M. (eds), Essays in European Economic History (1969)Google Scholar; Cameron, R. E., France and the Economic Development of Europe (Princeton, NJ, 1961)Google Scholar; Ratcliffe, B. M., ‘Some banking ideas in France in the 1830s. The writings of Emile and Isaac Pereire 1830–35’, Revue Internationale d'Histoire de la Banque, 10 (1975)Google Scholar; and Autin, J., Les Frères Pereire: le bonheur d'entreprendre (Paris, 1984).Google Scholar

⁴³ Redlich, F., ‘Two nineteenth century financiers and autobiographers. A comparative study in creative destructiveness and business failure’, Economy and History, 10 (1967).Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Friedman, M. and Schwartz, A. J., A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 (Princeton, NJ, 1963).Google Scholar This is not to overlook the real indicator, heralding a change in attitudes and approaches – Friedman, M. (ed.), Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money (Chicago, III., 1956).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Walters, A. A., Money in Boom and Slump, Hobart Paper 44 (1969)Google Scholar; Sheppard, D. K., The Growth and Role of UK Financial Institutions 1880–1962 (1971)Google Scholar; Capie, F. and Webber, A., A Monetary History of the United Kingdom, vol. I, Data, Sources, Methods (1985); an analytical study is promised.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Comparable work on French monetary history includes Saint-Marc, M., Histoire monétaire de la France 1800–1980 (Paris, 1983)Google Scholar; and Patat, J. P. and Lutfala, M., Histoire monétaire de la France au XXe siècle (Paris, 1986).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Wheelock, D. C., The Strategy and Consistency of Federal Reserve Monetary Policy, 1924–1933 (Cambridge, 1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁸ For example, Bosch, O. and Feldman, G. D. (eds), Historische Prozesse der deutschen Inflation. Ein Tagungsbericht (Berlin, 1978)Google Scholar; Feldman, G. D. et al. (eds), Die deutsche Inflation. Eine Zunschenbilanz (Berlin, 1982)Google Scholar; Feldman, G. D., Holtfrereich, C.-L., Ritter, G. A. and Witt, P. C. (eds), The Experience of Inflation: International and Comparative Studies (Berlin, 1984)Google Scholar; Holtferich, C.-L., translated by Balderston, T., The German Inflation, 1914–1923: Causes and Effects in International Perspective (Berlin, 1986)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hughes, M. L., Paying for the German Inflation (Chapel Hill, NC, 1988)Google Scholar; Kunz, A. W., Civil Servants and the Politics of Inflation and Stabilization in Germany 1914–1924 (Berkeley, Cal., 1983)Google Scholar; Moeller, R. G., German Peasants and Agrarian Politics 1914–1924: The Rhineland and Westphalia (Chapel Hill, NC, 1986).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ The extent of the continuing fascination is indicated by David Landes’ comment that ‘A library has been written on this family’: in terms of just the scholarly examination of the Rothschilds’ rise to prominence the best, along with Gille's work, are Berghöffer, C. W., Meyer Amschel Rothschild, der Gründer des Rothschildschen Bankhauses (Frankfurt, 1923)Google Scholar; Ehrenberg, R., Grosse Vermögen, vol. I, Die Fugger-Rothschild-Krupp (Jena, 1925)Google Scholar; Corti, E., The Rise of the House of Rothschild (New York, 1928)Google Scholar; Bouvier, J., Les Rothschilds (Paris, 1967)Google Scholar; Chapman, S. D., ‘The foundation of the English Rothschilds’, Textile History, 8 (1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and idem, N. M. Rothschild, 1777–1836 (privately printed, 1977).

⁵⁰ For example, Platt, D. C. M., Britain's Investment Overseas on the Eve of the First World War: The Use and Abuse of Numbers (1986)Google Scholar, but also Feinstein, C., ‘Britain's overseas investments in 1913’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 43 (1990).CrossRefGoogle Scholar For France, see Lévy-Leboyer, M., ‘La Balance des paiements et l'exportation des capitaux français’, in Lévy-Leboyer, M. (ed.), La Position intemationale de la France: aspects économiques et financiers (Paris, 1977).Google Scholar

⁵¹ The ‘touchstone’ was Svedberg, P., ‘The portfolio-direct composition of private foreign investment in 1914 revisited’, Economic Journal, 88 (1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, with one example of the ‘revisionist’ consequences being Stone, I., ‘British direct and portfolio investment in Latin America before 1914’, Journal of Economic History, 27 (1977).Google Scholar A yet further reinterpretation arises from Wilkins, M., ‘The free standing company, 1870–1914: an important type of British foreign direct investment’, Economic History Review, 2nd ser., 41 (1988).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵² Cameron, R. and Bovykin, V. I. (eds), International Banking 1870–1914 (New York, 1991).Google Scholar

⁵³ Marseille, J., Empire colonial et capitalisme français. Histoire d'un divorce (Paris, 1984).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Cain, P. J. and Hopkins, A. G., British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688–1914, and British Imperialism: Crisis and Deconstruction 1914–1990 (1993).Google Scholar

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⁵⁹ Rubinstein, W. D., Men of Property (1981)Google Scholar; Augustine-Perez, D. L., ‘Very wealthy business men in Imperial Germany’, Journal of Social History, 22 (1988/1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶⁴ But see Anderson, G., Victorian Clerks (Manchester, 1976)Google Scholar; Green, E., Debtors to their Profession: A History of the Institute of Bankers 1879–1979 (1979)Google Scholar; and Boot, H. M., ‘Salaries and career earnings in the Bank of Scotland 1730–1880’, Economic History Review, 44 (1991).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶⁹ Roseveare, H., The Treasury (1969)Google Scholar; Middleton, R., Towards the Managed Economy (1985)Google Scholar; Clark, P., The Keynesian Revolution in the Making 1924–1936 (Oxford, 1988)Google Scholar; Margairaz, M., L'Etat, les finances et l'economic: histoire d'une conversion, 1932–1952 (Paris, 1991).Google Scholar

⁷⁰ Born, K. E., Die deutsche Bankenkrise, 1931 (Munich, 1967).Google Scholar

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⁷³ See Jones, G., ‘International financial centres in Asia, the Middle East and Australia: a historical perspective’, in Cassis, (ed.), Finance and Financiers.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ An indication of the richness of the Japanese historiography is provided by Ishii, K., ‘Japan’Google Scholar, in Cameron, and Bovykin, , International Banking.Google Scholar