Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T06:58:30.122Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Second-generation antipsychotics and constipation: A review of the literature

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 April 2020

M. De Hert ,
H. Hudyana ,
L. Dockx ,
C. Bernagie ,
K. Sweers ,
J. Tack ,
S. Leucht  and
J. Peuskens
M. De Hert*
Affiliation:
University Psychiatric Centre, Campus Kortenberg, Catholic University Louvain, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, Belgium
H. Hudyana
Affiliation:
University Psychiatric Centre, Campus Kortenberg, Catholic University Louvain, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, Belgium
L. Dockx
Affiliation:
Medical Faculty, Campus Gasthuisberg, Catholic University Louvain, O&N2, Herestraat 49-bus 700, 3000Leuven, Belgium
C. Bernagie
Affiliation:
Medical Faculty, Campus Gasthuisberg, Catholic University Louvain, O&N2, Herestraat 49-bus 700, 3000Leuven, Belgium
K. Sweers
Affiliation:
University Psychiatric Centre, Campus Kortenberg, Catholic University Louvain, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, Belgium
J. Tack
Affiliation:
Department of Gastroenterology, Catholic University Louvain, O&NI Herestraat 49-bus 701, 3000Leuven, Belgium
S. Leucht
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Technische Universität München, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Ismaningerstr. 22, 81675Munich, Germany
J. Peuskens
Affiliation:
University Psychiatric Centre, Campus Kortenberg, Catholic University Louvain, Leuvensesteenweg 517, 3070 Kortenberg, Belgium
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected](M. De Hert)
Get access

Abstract

Antipsychotics are the cornerstone in the management of psychotic disorders and schizophrenia. They are effective agents but also have a wide range of side effects. In the recent literature constipation as possible side effect has received little attention. A review of the literature concerning constipation associated with antipsychotics was performed. Overall constipation is a rarely studied or reported side effect of antipsychotic medication. Nevertheless constipation is a common side effect. Antipsychotic agents differ in their liability to induce constipation. Constipation can be severe and can lead to serious consequences such as paralytic ileus, bowel occlusion and death. Active screening, monitoring and treatment are recommended. Further research on incidence, prevalence, underlying mechanisms and preventive measures is required.

Keywords

SchizophreniaAntipsychoticsSide effectsConstipationPhysical health
Type
Original article
Information
European Psychiatry , Volume 26 , Issue 1 , January 2011 , pp. 34 - 44
Copyright
Copyright © Elsevier Masson SAS 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Diabetes Association, Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 596–601.Google Scholar
Antonacci, Dde Groot, CClozapine treatment in a population of adults with mental retardation. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(1): 22–25.10.4088/JCP.v61n0106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barbui, CNosè, MBindman, JSchene, ABecker, TMazzi, MAet al.Sex differences in the subjective tolerability of antipsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2005; 25(6): 521–526.10.1097/01.jcp.0000185423.15891.02CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, AHMackin, PChaudhry, IFarooqi, AGadsby, RHeald, Aet al.Minimising metabolic and cardiovascular risk in schizophrenia. J Psychopharmacol 2007; 21(4): 357–373.10.1177/0269881107075509CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bassotti, Gde Roberto, GSediari, LMorelli, AToward a definition of colonic inertia. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10(17): 2465–2467.10.3748/wjg.v10.i17.2465CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boggs, DKelly, DLFeldman, SMcMahon, RPQuetiapine at high doses for the treatment of refractory schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008; 101: 347–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buscema, CAbbasi, QBarry, DLauve, TAn algorithm for the treatment of schizophrenia in the correctional setting: the forensic algorithm project. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(10): 767–783.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cahn, WRamlal, DBruggeman, Rde Haan, LScheepers, FEvan Soest, MMet al.Prevention and treatment of somatic complications arising from the use of antipsychotics. Tijdschr Psychiatr 2008; 50(9): 579–591.Google ScholarPubMed
Chew, MMulsant, BPollock, BLehman, MGreenspan, AKirshner, MAet al.A model of anticholinergic activity of atypical antipsychotic medication. Schizophr Res 2006; 88: 63–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Citrome, LOlanzapine: interpreting the label change. Int J Clin Pract 2007; 61(12): 1960–1962.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Citrome, LYeomans, DDo guidelines for severe mental illness promote physical health and well-being? J Psychopharmacol 196 Suppl2005 102109.10.1177/0269881105059505CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Committee on Safety of Medicines/Medicines Control. Agency. Clozapine (Clozaril) and gastrointestinal obstruction. Curr Probl Pharmacovigilance 1999;25:1..Google Scholar
Correll, CUBalancing efficacy and safety in the treatment with antipsychotics. CNS Spectr 12Suppl 172007 1220.10.1017/S1092852900026298CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Correll, CUAntipsychotic use in children and adolescents: minimizing adverse effects to maximize outcomes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008; 47(1): 9–20.10.1097/chi.0b013e31815b5cb1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Hert, MVan Eyck, DDe Nayer, AMetabolic abnormalities associated with second generation antipsychotics: fact or fiction? Development of guidelines for screening and monitoring. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 21(2): 11–15.10.1097/01.yic.0000201496.23259.85CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Hert, MWampers, Mvan Winkel, RPeuskens, JAnticholinergic use in hospitalised schizophrenic patients in Belgium. Psychiatry Res 1522–32007 165172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Hert, MDekker, JMWood, DKahl, KGHolt, RIGMöller, HJCardiovascular disease and diabetes in people with severe mental illness. Position statement from the European Psychiatric Association (EPA), supported by the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Psychiatry 2009; 24: 412–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Hert, M, van Winkel, R , Silic, A, Van Eyck, D, Peuskens, J. Physical health management in psychiatric settings. Eur Psychiatry 2010; 25(2) (in press)..CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Degner, DKamphausen, BHGrohmann, RWolff-Menzler, CRuther, EParalytic ileus and Mallory–Weiss syndrome with fatal outcome in clozapine therapy. Psychopharmacotherapy 2004; 11(3): 96–97.Google Scholar
Dennison, CPrasad, MLloyd, ABhattacharyya, SDhawan, RCoyne, KThe health-related quality of life and economic burden of constipation. Pharmacoeconomics 2005; 23(5): 461–476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickey, BNormand, SLHermann, RCEisen, SVCortes, DECleary, PDet al.Guideline recommendations for treatment of schizophrenia: the impact of managed care. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003; 60(4): 340–348.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dockx, LDe Hert, MAntipsychotica en constipatie: een literatuurstudie. Psychiatr Verpleging 2009; 3: 141–151.Google Scholar
Dome, PTeleki, ZKotanyi, RParalytic ileus associated with combined atypical antipsychotic therapy. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007; 31(2): 557–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drew, LHerdson, PClozapine and constipation: a serious issue. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1997; 31: 149–150.Google ScholarPubMed
Dworkin, RHPain insensitivity in schizophrenia: a neglected phenomenon and some implications. Schizophr Bull 1994; 20(2): 235–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, PM. Clozapine: Fatal ‘constipation’ more common than fatal agranulocytosis. 2007; http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/profs/PUArticles/clozGI.htm..Google Scholar
Erickson, BMorris, DMReeve, AClozapine-associated postoperative ileus: case report and review of the literature. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52(6): 508–509.Google ScholarPubMed
Eronen, MPutkonen, HHallikainen, TVartiainen, HLethal gastroenteritis associated with clozapine and loperamide. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160(12): 2242–2243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, DLRogers, JFPeiper, SCIntestinal dilatation associated with phenothiazine therapy: a case report and literature review. Am J Psychiatry 1979; 136: 970–972.Google ScholarPubMed
Falkai, PWobrock, TLieberman, JGlenthoj, BGattaz, WFMöller, HJWorld Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Task Force on Treatment Guidelines for Schizophrenia. Guidelines for biological treatment of schizophrenia. Part 1: Acute treatment of schizophrenia. World J Biol Psychiatry 2005; 6(3): 132–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falkai, PWobrock, TLieberman, JGlenthoj, BGattaz, WFMöller, HJWorld Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Task Force on Treatment Guidelines for Schizophrenia. Guidelines for biological treatment of schizophrenia. Part 2: Long-term treatment of schizophrenia. World J Biol Psychiatry 2006; 7(1): 5–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fan, YLuo, WClinical study on treatment of constipation caused by antipsychotic drugs with acupuncture and tuina combined with laxative suppository. J Acupunct Tuina Sci 2004; 2(5): 51–54.Google Scholar
FDABLE. 2009. www.fdable.com/aers/advanced_query/ (accessed 28th July 2009, 9th September 2009 and 11th September 2009)..Google Scholar
Fitton, AHeel, RCClozapine. A review of its pharmacological properties, and therapeutic use in schizophrenia. Drugs 1990; 40(5): 722–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleischhacker, WWCetkovich-Bakmas, MDe Hert, MHennekens, CLambert, MLeucht, Set al.Cormorbid somatic illnesses in patients with severe mental disorders: clinical, policy and research challenges. J Clin Psychiatry 2008; 69: 514–519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Floris, MLecompte, DMallet, LMourad, HDe Nayer, AVandendriessche, Fet al.Antipsychotica en acetylcholine: een stand van zaken. Neuron 2001; 6(7): 1–13.Google Scholar
Frenchman, BAtypical antipsychotics for nursing home patients. Drugs Aging 2005; 22(3): 257–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freudenreich, OGoff, DCColon perforation and peritonitis associated with clozapine. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61(12): 950–951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaszner, GKosza, PParalytic ileus during haloperidol therapy. Neuropsychopharmacol Hung 2004; 6(1): 36–38.Google ScholarPubMed
Giordano, JCanter, JWHuang, AFatal paralytic ileus complicating phenothiazine therapy. South Med J 1975; 68(3): 351–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goff, DCather, CEvins, EHenderson, DFreudenreich, OCopeland, PMet al.Medical morbidity and mortality in schizophrenia: guidelines for psychiatrists. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66(2): 183–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grohmann, REngel, RRRüther, EHippius, HThe AMSP drug safety program: methods and global results. Pharmacopsychiatry 37Suppl 12004 S411.Google ScholarPubMed
Grohmann, RHippius, HHelmchen, HRüther, ESchmidt, LGThe AMUP study for drug surveillance in psychiatry – a summary of inpatient data. Pharmacopsychiatry 37Suppl 12004 S1626.Google ScholarPubMed
Haddad, PMSharma, SGAdverse effects of atypical antipsychotics; differential risk and clinical implications. CNS Drugs 2007; 21: 911–936.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, BGibler, BClopazine-induced constipation. Am J Psychiatry 152 1995 298.Google ScholarPubMed
Hibbard, KRPropst, AFrank, DEWyse, JFatalities associated with clozapine-related constipation and bowel obstruction: a literature review and two case reports. Psychosomatics 2009; 50(4): 416–419.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Honigfeld, GArellano, FSethi, JBianchini, ASchein, JReducing clozapine-related morbidity and mortality: 5 years of experience with the Clozaril National Registry. J Clin Psychiatry 59Suppl 31989 37.Google Scholar
Kahn, RSFleischhacker, WWBoter, HDavidson, MVergouwe, YKeet, Iet al.Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in first-episode schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder: an open randomised clinical trial. Lancet 2008; 371: 1085–1097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, DRichardson, CYu, CConley, RPlasma concentrations of high-dose olanzapine in a double-blind crossover study. Hum Psychopharmacol 2006; 21: 393–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, JSBymaster, FPBasson, BRGilmore, JATran, PVThe comparative peripheral anticholinergic-like adverse event profiles of olanzapine and risperidone. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 2(4): 122–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kennedy, JSJeste, DKaiser, CJGolshan, SMaguire, GATollefson, Get al.Olanzapine vs haloperidol in geriatric schizophrenia: analysis of data from a double-blind controlled trail. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2003; 18: 1013–1020.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kok, Jvan der Heyden, FTuinier, SVerhoeven, WClozapine en ileus. Tijdschr Psychiatr 49Suppl 12007 216.Google Scholar
Leucht, SBurkard, THenderson, JMaj, MSartorius, NPhysical illness and schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2007; 116(5): 317–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leucht, SArbter, DEngel, KKKissling, WDavis, JMHow effective are second-generation antipsychotic drugs? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Mol Psychiatry 2008; 14(4): 429–447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leucht, SCorves, CArbter, DEngel, RRLi, CDavis, JMSecond-generation versus first-generation antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2009; 373(9657): 31–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leucht, SKomossa, KRummel-Kluge, CCorves, CHunger, CSchmid, Fet al.A Meta-analysis of head-to-head comparisons of second-generation antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2009; 166(2): 152–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, TBarrett, JMendelowitz, ADeath from clozapine-induced constipation. Psychomatics 2002; 43(1): 71–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levoyer, DMartinet, JPBadiche, AMillet, BTen years of clinical experience with clozapine about 170 patients. Encephale 2004; 30(3): 285–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, JAManaging side effects to maximize clozapine therapy. J Clin Psychiatry 59Suppl 31998 3843.Google Scholar
Lieberman, JAStroup, TSMcEvoy, JPSwartz, MSRosenheck, RAPerkins, DOet al.Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in patients with chronic schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1209–1223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lim, DKMahendran, RRisperidone and megacolon. Singapore Med J 2002; 43(10): 530–532.Google ScholarPubMed
Longstreth, GThompson, WChey, WHoughton, LMearin, FSpiller, RFunctional bowel disorders. Gastroenterology 2006; 130: 1480–1491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lu, MKClinical analysis in the main side effects of clozapine: enclosed 600 cases report. Zhonghua Shen Jing Jing Shen Ke Za Zhi 1991; 24(2): 71–74.Google ScholarPubMed
Marder, SREssock, SMMiller, ALBuchanan, RWCasey, DEDavis, JMet al.Physical health monitoring of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161: 1334–1349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathew, TDesmond, PIsaacs, DLander, CShenfield, GWainright, Det al.Constipation: it can be severe with clozapine. Aust Adverse Drug React Bull 1999; 18(2): 12–15.Google Scholar
McEvoy, JPLieberman, JAStroup, TSDavis, SMMeltzer, HYRosenheck, RAet al.Effectiveness of clozapine versus olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia who did not respond to prior atypical antipsychotic treatment. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163(4): 600–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKinnon, NDAzad, AWaters, BMJoshi, KGClozapine-induced bowel infarction: A case report. Psychiatry (Edgmont) 2009; 6(3): 30–35.Google ScholarPubMed
Meek, PCoates, ANorelli, LWoodcock, DShobola, ODreyfus, SConstipation in patients with schizophrenia: A systematic review of antipsychotic trials comparing clozapine. Gastroenterology 2008; 134(4): 528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, DReview and management of clozapine side effects. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61: 14–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Mortimer, AWilliams, PMeddis, DImpact of side-effects of atypical antipsychotics on non-compliance, relapse and cost. J Int Med Res 2003; 31: 188–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munro, JO'Sullivan, DAndrews, CArana, AMortimer, AKerwin, RActive monitoring of 12,760 clozapine recipients in the UK and Ireland. Beyond pharmacovigilance. Br J Psychiatry 1999; 175: 576–580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newcomer, JWSecond-generation (atypical) antipsychotics and metabolic effects. A comprehensive literature review. CNS Drugs 19Suppl 12005 193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NICE. Schizophrenia core interventions in the treatment and management of schizophrenia in adults in primary and secondary care 2009. http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/SchizophreniaUpdateFullGuidelineDraft%20ForConsultation.pdf..Google Scholar
Ozbilen, MAdams, CESystematic overview of cochrane reviews for anticholinergic effects of antypsychotic drugs. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2009; 29: 41–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, SEMclean, RMEllis, PMHarrison-Woolrych, MLife-threatening clozapine-induced gastrointestinal hypomotility: An analysis of 102 cases. J Clin Psychiatry 2008; 69(5): 759–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pelizza, LDe Luca, PLa Pesa, MBorella, DClozapine-induced intestinal occlusion: a serious side effect. Acta Biomed 2007; 78: 144–148.Google ScholarPubMed
Peppas, GAlexiou, VMourtzoukou, EFalagas, MEpidemiology of constipation in Europe and Oceania: a systematic review. BMC Gastroenterol 8 2008 5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potkin, SGharawawi, GGreenspan, AMahmoud, RA double blind comparison of risperidone, quetiapine and placebo in patients with schizophrenia experiencing an acute exacerbation requiring hospitalization. Schizophr Res 2006; 85: 254–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potter, WZGrant, NKLiang, DZYan, WClozapine in China: A review and preview of US/PRC collaboration. Psychopharmacology 1989; 99: 87–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raedler, TReimer, JWiedemand, KDose-dependent constipation with higher doses of quetiapine: a case series. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2007; 22: 244–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rege, SLafferty, TLife-threatening constipation associated with clozapine. Australas Psychiatry 2008; 16(3): 216–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rondla, SCrane, SA case of clozapine-induced paralytic ileus. Emerg Med J 2422007 e12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rousseau, ACharbonneau, MSevere faecal impaction under clozapine, resulting in death. J AMPQ (Assoc Med Psychiatr Que) 2007; 11: 16–18.Google Scholar
Saha, SChant, DMcGrath, JA systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64: 1123–1131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seller, CKoen, LNiehaus, DClozapine-induced intestinal obstruction – a critical examination of four cases. Afr J psychiatry 2006; 12(1): 21–24.Google Scholar
Shammi, CMRemington, GClozapine induced necrotizing colitis. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 17: 230–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanniland, CTaylor, DTolerability of atypical antipsychotics. Drug Saf 2000; 22(3): 195–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroup, TSLieberman, JAMcEvoy, JPSwartz, MSDavis, SMRosenheck, RAet al.Effectiveness of olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and ziprasidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia following discontinuation of a previous atypical antipsychotic. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 611–622.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroup, TSLieberman, JAMcEvoy, JPSwartz, MSDavis, SMCapuano, GAet al.Effectiveness of olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia after discontinuing perphenazine: a CATIE study. Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164(3): 415–427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroup, TSLieberman, JAMcEvoy, JPDavis, SMSwartz, MSKeefe, RSet al.Results of phase 3 of the CATIE schizophrenia trial. Schizophr Res 2009; 107(1): 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suzuki, TUchida, HWatanabe, KKashima, HMinimizing antipsychotic medication obviated the need for enema against severe constipation leading to paralytic ileus: a case report. J Clin Pharm Ther 2007; 32: 525–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Talley, NJJones, MNuyts, GDubois, DRisk factors of chronic constipation based on a general practical sample. Am J Gasteroenterol 2003; 98: 1107–1111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tandon, RBelmaker, RHGattaz, WFLopez-Ibor, JJOkasha, ASingh, BWorld Psychiatric Association Pharmacopsychiatry Section statement on comparative effectiveness of antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1001–32008 2038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tang, WUngvari, GClozapine-induced intestinal obstruction. Aust N Z J Med 29 1999 560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Theret, LGermaine, MLBurde, ACurrent aspects of the use of clozapine in the Chalons-sur-Marne Psychiatric Hospital: intestinal occlusion with clozapine (French). Ann Med Psychol 1995; 153: 474–477.Google ScholarPubMed
Townsend, GCurtis, DCase report: rapidly fatal bowel ischaemia on clozapine treatment. BMC Psychiatry 6 2006 43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tschoner, AEngl, JLaimer, MRettenbacher, MFleischhacker, WPatsch, JRet al.Metabolic side effects of antipsychotic medication. Int J Clin Pract 2007; 61(8): 1356–1370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, AMLanza, LLArellano, FRothman, KJMortality in current and former users of clozapine. Epidemiology 1997; 8(6): 617–671.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, HMacaulay, KAssessment of the side effects of antipsychotic medication. Nurs Stand 2005; 19(40): 41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wampers, MDe Hert, MVan Eyck, DPeuskens, JSomatic medication in hospitalised schizophrenic patients in Belgium. Schizophr Res 2004; 1: 152–153.Google Scholar
Weiden, PJPreskorn, SHFahnestock, PACarpenter, DRoss, RDocherty, JPRoadmap survey, translating the psychopharmacology of antipsychotics to individualized treatment for severe mental illness: a roadmap. J Clin Psychiatry 68Suppl 72007 148.Google ScholarPubMed
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.