Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-06T09:03:41.220Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Long-term trajectories of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: A critical overview

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 October 2015

A.B. Shmukler ,
I.Y. Gurovich ,
M. Agius  and
Y. Zaytseva
A.B. Shmukler*
Affiliation:
Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry, Moscow, Russian Federation
I.Y. Gurovich
Affiliation:
Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry, Moscow, Russian Federation
M. Agius
Affiliation:
Clare College Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK East London NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
Y. Zaytseva
Affiliation:
Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry, Moscow, Russian Federation National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic Department of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic Human Science Centre and Institute of Medical Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität, Munich, Germany
*
⁎Corresponding author. Department of Outpatient Psychiatry and Organization of Psychiatric Care, Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry, Branch of Federal Medical Research Centre of Psychiatry and Narcology named after V.P. Serbsky, Poteshnaya Str., 3, 107076 Moscow, Russian Federation. Tel.: +7 499 162 100 3. E-mail address:[email protected] (A.B. Shmukler).
Get access

Abstract

Background

Cognitive disturbances are widely pronounced in schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Whilst cognitive deficits are well established in the prodromal phase and are known to deteriorate at the onset of schizophrenia, there is a certain discrepancy of findings regarding the cognitive alterations over the course of the illness.

Methods

We bring together the results of the longitudinal studies identified through PubMed which have covered more than 3 years follow-up and to reflect on the potential factors, such as sample characteristics and stage of the illness which may contribute to the various trajectories of cognitive changes.

Results

A summary of recent findings comprising the changes of the cognitive functioning in schizophrenia patients along the longitudinal course of the illness is provided. The potential approaches for addressing cognition in the course of schizophrenia are discussed.

Conclusions

Given the existing controversies on the course of cognitive changes in schizophrenia, differentiated approaches specifically focusing on the peculiarities of the clinical features and changes in specific cognitive domains could shed light on the trajectories of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and spectrum disorders.

Keywords

Cognitive deficitsSchizophreniaTrajectoriesFollow-up
Type
Review
Information
European Psychiatry , Volume 30 , Issue 8 , November 2015 , pp. 1002 - 1010
Copyright
Copyright © European Psychiatric Association 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achim, A.M.LePage, M.. Episodic memory-related activation in schizophrenia: metaanalysis. Br J Psychiatry 2005;187:500–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Albus, M.Hubmann, W.Mohr, F., et al.Neurocognitive functioning in patients with first-episode schizophrenia: results of a prospective 5-year follow-up study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006;256:442–451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aleman, A.Kahn, R.S.Selten, J.P.. Sex differences in the risk of schizophrenia: evidence from meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:565–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreasen, N.C.Carpenter, W.T.Kane, J.M.Lasser, R.A.Marder, S.R.Weinberger, D.R.. Remission in schizophrenia: proposed criteria and rationale for consensus. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:441–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anon, Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5), 5th ed., Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
Antonova, E.Sharma, T.Morris, R.Kumari, V.The relationship between brain structure and neurocognition in schizophrenia: a selective review. Schizophr Res 2004;70:117–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barch, D.M.Smith, E.The cognitive neuroscience of working memory: relevance to CNTRICS and schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2008;64:11–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bedwell, J.S.Keller, B.Smith, A.K.Hamburger, S.Kumra, S.Rapoport, J.L.Why does postpsychotic IQ decline in childhood-onset schizophrenia?. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1996–1997.Google ScholarPubMed
Bertelsen, M.Jeppesen, P.Petersen, L., et al.Course of illness in a sample of 265 patients with first-episode psychosis – five-year follow-up of the Danish OPUS trial. Schizophr Res 2009;107:173–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bervoets, C.Morrens, M.Vansteelandt, K., et al.Effect of aripiprazole on verbal memory and fluency in schizophrenic patients. Results from the ESCAPE study. CNS Drugs 2012;26:975–982.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bilder, R.M.Reiter, G.Bates, J., et al.Cognitive development in schizophrenia: follow back from the first episode. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2006;28:270–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonner-Jackson, A.Grossman, L.S.Harrow, M.Rosen, C.Neurocognition in schizophrenia: a 20-year multi-follow-up of the course of processing speed and stored knowledge. Compr Psychiatry 2010;51:471–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bora, E.Developmental lag and course of cognitive deficits from the premorbid to post onset period in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2014;171:369–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bora, E.Murray, R.M.Meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in ultra-high risk to psychosis and first-episode psychosis: do the cognitive deficits progress over, or after, the onset of psychosis?. Schizophr Bull 2014;40:744–755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowie, C.R.Leung, W.W.Reichenberg, A., et al.Predicting schizophrenia patients’ real world behavior with specific neuropsychological and functional capacity measures. Biol Psychiatry 2008;63:505–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bozikas, V.P.Andreou, C.Longitudinal studies of cognition in first episode psychosis: a systematic review of the literature. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2011;45:93–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A.Reichenberg, A.Weiser, M., et al.Cognitive performance in schizophrenia patients assessed before and following the first psychotic episode. Schizophr Res 2003;65:87–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, K.K.Xu, J.Q.Liu, K.C.Hui, C.L.Wong, G.H.Chen, E.Y.Executive function in first episode schizophrenia: a three-year prospective study of the Hayling Sentence Completion Test. Schizophr Res 2012;135:62–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, W.C.Ming Hui, C.L.Yan Wong, G.H., et al.Symptomatic remission and cognitive impairment in first-episode schizophrenia: a prospective 3-year follow-up study. J Clin Psychiatry 2013;74:1046–1053.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ciompi, L.The natural history of schizophrenia in the long-term. Br J Psychiatry 1980;136:413–420.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craddock, N.Owen, M.J.The beginning of the end for the Kraepelinian dichotomy. Br J Psychiatry 2005;186:364–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, M.Galderisi, S.Weiser, M., et al.Cognitive effects of antipsychotic drugs in first-episode schizophrenia and schizophreniform disorder: a randomized, open-label clinical trial (EUFEST). Am J Psychiatry 2009;166:675–682.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, D.Zeroing in on early cognitive development in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2014;171:9–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, D.Ramsey, M.B.Gold, J.M.Overlooking the obvious: a meta-analytic comparison of digit symbol coding tasks and other cognitive measures in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:532–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, D.Ragland, J.D.Gold, J.M.Gur, R.C.General and specific cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: Goliath defeats David. Biol Psychiatry 2008;64:823–827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickson, H.Laurens, K.R.Cullen, A.E.Hodgins, S.Meta-analyses of cognitive and motor function in youth aged 16 years and younger who subsequently develop schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2012;42:743–755.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elvevog, B.Goldberg, T.E.Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia is the core of the disorder. Crit Rev Neurobiol 2000;14:1–21.Google Scholar
Fioravanti, M.Carlone, O.Vitale, B., et al.A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in adults with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychol Rev 2005;15:73–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fish, B.Marcus, J.Hans, S.L.Auerbach, J.G.Perdue, S.Infants at risk for schizophrenia: sequelae of a genetic neurointegrative defect: a review and replication analysis of pandysmaturation in the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:221–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friedman, J.I.Harvey, P.D.McGurk, S.R., et al.Correlates of change in functional status of institutionalized geriatric schizophrenic patients: focus on medical comorbidity. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:1388–1394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller, R.Nopoulos, P.Arndt, S.O’Leary, D.Ho, B.-C.Andreasen, N.C.Longitudinal assessment of premorbid cognitive functioning in patients with schizophrenia through examination of standardized scholastic test performance. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:1183–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fusar-Poli, P.Perez, J.Broome, M., et al.Neurofunctional correlates of vulnerability to psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Behav Rev 2007;31:465–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, S.Arndt, S.Nopoulos, P.O’Leary, D.S.Andreasen, N.C.Longitudinal study of cognitive function in first episode and recent-onset schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1342–1348.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, T.E.Hyde, T.M.Kleinman, J.E., et al.Course of schizophrenia: neuropsychological evidence for a static encephalopathy. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:797–804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, M.F.Bearden, C.E.Cannon, T.D.Fiske, A.P., et al.Social cognition in schizophrenia, part 1: performance across phase of illness. Schizophr Bull 2012;38:854–864.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gurovich, I.Y.Shmukler, A.B.Zaytseva, Y.Dynamics of neurocognitive functioning in patients in early stages of schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2012;112:7–14 [in Russian].Google ScholarPubMed
Harding, C.Brooks, G.Ashikiga, T.Strauss, J.Breier, A.The Vermont longitudinal study of persons with severe mental illness. I. Methodology, study sample, and overall status 32 years later. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:718–726.Google ScholarPubMed
Harding, C.Brooks, G.Ashikiga, T.Strauss, J.Breier, A.The Vermont longitudinal study of persons with severe mental illness. II. Long-term outcomes of subjects who retrospectively met DSM-III criteria for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:727–735.Google Scholar
Harrison, G.Hopper, K.Craig, T., et al.Recovery from psychotic illness: a 15- and 25-year international follow-up study. Br J Psychiatry 2001;178:506–517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrow, M.Jobe, T.H.Does long-term treatment of schizophrenia with antipsychotic medications facilitate recovery? Schizophr Bull 2013;39:962–965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrow, M.Jobe, T.H.Faull, R.N.Do all schizophrenia patients need antipsychotic treatment continuously throughout their lifetime? A 20-year longitudinal study. Psychol Med 2012;42:214–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, P.D.Cognitive and functional impairments in elderly patients with schizophrenia: a review of the recent literature. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2001;9:59–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, P.D.Cognitive impairment in elderly patients with schizophrenia: age related changes. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001;16(Suppl. 1):S78–S85.3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, P.D.Parrella, M.White, L.Mohs, R.C., et al.Convergence of cognitive and adaptive decline in late-life schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1999;35:77–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, P.D.Silverman, J.M.Mohs, R.C., et al.Cognitive decline in late-life schizophrenia: a longitudinal study of geriatric chronically hospitalized patients. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:32–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heaton, R.K.Gladsjo, J.A.Palmer, B.W., et al.Stability and course of neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:24–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinrichs, R.W.Zakzanis, K.K.Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology 1998;12:426–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, J.D.Crawford, J.R.A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency deficits in schizophrenia relative to other neurocognitive deficits. Cognit Neuropsychiatry 2005;10:1–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, L.P.Amminger, G.P.Harris, M.G., et al.The EPPIC follow-up study of first episode psychosis: longer-term clinical and functional outcome 7 years after index admission. J Clin Psychiatry 2010;71:716–728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, S.K.Bishop, J.R.Palumbo, D.Sweeney, J.A.Effect of second-generation antipsychotics on cognition: current issues and future challenges. Expert Rev Neurother 2010;10:43–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoff, A.L.Sakuma, M.Wieneke, M.Horon, R.Kushner, M.DeLisi, L.E.Longitudinal neuropsychological follow-up study of patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1336–1341.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoff, A.Svetina, C.Maurizio, A., et al.Familial cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005;133:43–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoff, A.L.Svetina, C.Shields, G.Stewart, J.DeLisi, L.E.Ten-year longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning subsequent to a first episode of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2005;78:27–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huber, G.The heterogeneous course of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1997;28:177–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, C.Kumari, V.Das, M., et al.Cognitive functioning in siblings discordant for schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2005;111:185–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulshoff Pol, H.E.Kahn, R.What happens after first episode? A review of progressive brain changes in chronically ill patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:354–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irani, F.Kalkstein, S.Moberg, E.A.Moberg, P.J.Neuropsychological performance in older patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Schizophr Bull 2011;37:1318–1326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P.Rodgers, B.Murray, R.Marmot, M.Child developmental risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 1994;344:1398–1402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahn, R.S.Keefe, R.S.E.Schizophrenia is a cognitive illness. Time for a change in focus. JAMA Psychiatry 2013;70:1107–1112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keefe, R.S.Sweeney, J.A.Gu, H., et al.Effects of olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone on neurocognitive function in early psychosis: a randomized, double-blind 52-week comparison. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:1061–1071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keshavan, M.S.Tandon, R.Boutros, N.Nasrallah, H.A.Schizophrenia, “just the facts”. What we know in 2008. Part 3: pathophysiology. Schizophr Res 2008;106:89–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khandaker, G.M.Barnett, J.H.White, I.R.Jones, P.B.A quantitative meta-analysis of population-based studies of premorbid intelligence and schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2011;132:220–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klingberg, S.Wittorf, A.Sickinger, S., et al.Course of cognitive functioning during the stabilization phase of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2008;42:259–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kremen, W.S.Seidman, L.J.Faraone, S.V.Tsuang, M.T.IQ decline in cross-sectional studies of schizophrenia: methodology and interpretation. Psychiatry Res 2008;158:181–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, M.Naber, D.Schacht, A., et al.Rates and predictors of remission and recovery during 3 years in 392 never treated patients with schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2008;118:220–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laws, K.R.A meta-analytic review of the Wisconsin Card Sort studies in schizophrenia: general intellectual deficit in disguise? Cognit Neuropsychiatry 1999;4:1–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, J.Park, S.Working memory impairments in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. J Abnorm Psychol 2005;114:599–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leeson, V.C.Sharma, P.Harrison, M., et al.IQ trajectory, cognitive reserve, and clinical outcome following a first episode of psychosis: a 3-year longitudinal study. Schizophr Bull 2011;37:768–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lencz, T.Smith, C.W.McLaughlin, D., et al.Generalized and specific neurocognitive deficits in prodromal schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2006;59:863–871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, J.Jody, D.Geisler, S., et al.Time course and biologic correlates of treatment response in first-episode schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:369–376.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, A.Wood, S.J.Nelson, B., et al.Neurocognitive predictors of functional outcome two to 13 years after identification as ultra-high risk for psychosis. Schizophr Res 2011;132:1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meier, M.H.Caspi, A.Reichenberg, A., et al.Neuropsychological decline in schizophrenia from the premorbid to the post-onset period: evidence from a population representative longitudinal study. Am J Psychiatry 2014;171:91–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menezes, N.M.Arenovich, T.Zipursky, R.B.A systematic review of longitudinal outcome studies of first-episode psychosis. Psychol Med 2006;36:1349–1362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mesholam-Gately, R.I.Giuliano, A.J.Goff, K.P.Neurocognition in first-episode schizophrenia: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 2009;23:315–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nemoto, T.Niimura, H.Ryu, Y., et al.Long-term course of cognitive function in chronically hospitalized patients with schizophrenia transitioning to community-based living. Schizophr Res 2014;155:90–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niendam, T.A.Bearden, C.E.Rosso, I.M., et al.A prospective study of childhood neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenic patients and their siblings. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:2060–2062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Øie, M.Sundet, K.Neurocognition and functional outcome in early-onset schizophrenia and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a 13-year follow-up. Neuropsychology 2011;25:25–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orzack, M.H.Kornetsky, C.Attention dysfunction in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1966;14:323–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, B.Heaton, R.K.Kuck, J.Braff, D.Is it possible to be schizophrenic yet neuropsychologically normal?. Neuropsychology 1997;11:437–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pandina, G.Bilder, R.Turkoz, I.Alphs, L.Identification of clinically meaningful relationships among cognition, functionality, and symptoms in subjects with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Schizophr Res 2013;143:312–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Penn, D.L.Sanna, L.J.Roberts, D.L.Social cognition in schizophrenia: an overview. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:408–411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rajji, T.K.Mulsant, B.H.Nature and course of cognitive function in late-life schizophrenia: a systematic review. Schizophr Res 2008;102:122–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ranganath, C.Minzenberg, M.J.Ragland, D.J.The cognitive neuroscience of memory function and dysfunction in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2008;64:18–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichenberg, A.Harvey, P.D.Neuropsychological impairments in schizophrenia: integration of performance-based and brain imaging findings. Psychol Bull 2007;133:833–858.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A.Weiser, M.Rapp, M.A., et al.Elaboration on premorbid intellectual performance in schizophrenia: premorbid intellectual decline and risk for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:1297–1304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichenberg, A.Caspi, A.Harrington, H., et al.Static and dynamic cognitive deficits in childhood preceding adult schizophrenia: a 30-year study. Am J Psychiatry 2010;167:160–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, D.Woerner, M.G.Alvir, J.M., et al.Predictors of relapse following response from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:241–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rund, B.R.A review of longitudinal studies of cognitive functions in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1998;24:425–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, A.J.Munro, J.C.Jones, P.B.Hemsley, D.R.Murray, R.M.Schizophrenia and the myth of intellectual decline. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:635–639.Google ScholarPubMed
Seidman, L.J.Buka, S.L.Goldstein, J.M.Tsuang, M.T.Intellectual decline in schizophrenia: evidence from a prospective birth cohort 28-year follow-up study. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2006;28:225–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sitskoorn, M.M.Aleman, A.Ebisch, S.J., et al.Cognitive deficits in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 2004;71:285–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snitz, B.E.Macdonald, A.W. III.Carter, C.S.Cognitive deficits in unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analytic review of putative phenotypes. Schizophr Bull 2006;32:179–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sprong, M.Schothorst, P.Vos, E., et al.Theory of mind in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2007;191:5–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stirling, J.White, C.Lewis, S., et al.Neurocognitive function and outcome in first episode schizophrenia: a 10-year follow-up of an epidemiological cohort. Schizophr Res 2003;65:75–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Szöke, A.Schurhoff, F.Mathieu, F., et al.Tests of executive function in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients: a meta-analysis. Psychol Med 2005;35:771–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Szöke, A.Trandafir, A.Dupont, M.E., et al.Longitudinal studies of cognition in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 2008;192:248–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Torgalsbøen, A.-K.Mohnb, C.Rund, B.R.Neurocognitive predictors of remission of symptoms and social and role functioning in the early course of first-episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2014;216:1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toulopoulou, T.Picchioni, M.Rijsdijk, F., et al.Substantial genetic overlap between neurocognition and schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:1348–1355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trandafir, A.Meary, A.Schurhoff, F., et al.Memory tests in first-degree adult relatives of schizophrenic patients: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 2006;81:217–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Haren, N.E.M.Cahn, W.Hulshoff Pol, H.E.Kahn, R.S.Schizophrenia as a progressive brain disease. Eur Psychiatry 2008;23:245–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Hooren, S.Versmissen, D.Janssen, I., et al.Social cognition and neurocognition as independent domains in psychosis. Schizophr Res 2008;103:257–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Winkel, R.Myin-Germeys, I.De-Hert, M., et al.The association between cognition and functional outcome in first-episode patients with schizophrenia: mystery solved. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2007;11:119–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vauth, R.Rusch, N.Wirtz, M.Corrigan, P.W.Does social cognition influence the relation between neurocognitive deficits and vocational functioning in schizophrenia? Psychiatry Res 2004;128:155–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waddington, J.L.Youssef, H.A.Cognitive dysfunction in chronic schizophrenia followed prospectively over 10 years and its longitudinal relationship to the emergence of tardive dyskinesia. Psychol Med 1996;26:681–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waddington, J.L.Youssef, H.A.Kinsella, A.Cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia followed up over 5 years, and its longitudinal relationship to the emergence of tardive dyskinesia. Psychol Med 1990;20:835–842.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberger, D.R.Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:660–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whalley, H.C.Harris, J.C.Lawrie, S.M.The neurobiological underpinnings of risk and conversion in relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Int Rev Psychiatry 2007;19:383–397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whyte, M.C.McIntosh, A.M.Johnstone, E.C., et al.Declarative memory in unaffected adult relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 2005;78:13–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodberry, K.A.Gluliano, A.J.Seidman, L.J.Premorbid IQ in schizophrenia: a metaanalytic review. Am J Psychiatry 2008;165:579–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaytseva, Y.Korsakova, N.K.Gurovich, I.Y.Neurocognitive deficit changes in relation to the course of schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders: 5-year follow-up study. Psychiatr Danub 2010;22(Suppl. 1):S149–S151.Google ScholarPubMed
Zipparo, L.Whitford, T.J.Redoblado Hodge, M.A., et al.Investigating the neuropsychological and neuroanatomical changes that occur over the first 2–3 years of illness in patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008;32:531–538.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zipursky, R.B.Reilly, T.J.Murray, R.M.The myth of schizophrenia as a progressive brain disease. Schizophr Bull 2013;39:1363–1372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.