Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T03:41:08.696Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Illiberalism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2021

Jasper Theodor Kauth  and
Desmond King
Jasper Theodor Kauth
Affiliation:
Nuffield College, University of Oxford, [[email protected]]
Desmond King
Affiliation:
Nuffield College, University of Oxford, [[email protected]]
Get access

Abstract

“Illiberalism” has assumed an invigorated if unanticipated significance in the 21st century. Aspects of illiberalism populate not only states long known as indifferent to such principles as personal liberty, human equality and the rule of law but have expanded in “liberal” democracies as their rulers employ purportedly “illiberal” practices more frequently than in the recent past. Indeed, the term “illiberal” seems to have lost its negative aura in the context of state action. We contend that illiberalism represents either an opposition to procedural democratic norms—as disruptive illiberalism—or an ideological struggle—termed ideological illiberalism. We first discuss the term as used in the vast literature on regime types in the debate on authoritarian/democratic hybrid-regimes. We then turn to the key puzzle in what one may call “illiberalism studies”: the rise of illiberal practices and policies in liberal democracies. To inform our analysis empirically, we investigate the ways in which illiberal arguments and institutions (notably camps) were deployed historically and in immigration policy. We conclude with an example of illiberal policy from modern day Hungary.

Keywords

IlliberalismLiberalismImmigrationCampsDemocracy.
Type
Research Article
Information
European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie , Volume 61 , Issue 3 , December 2020 , pp. 365 - 405
Copyright
© European Journal of Sociology 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Achiume, E. Tendayi, 2017. “Reimagining International Law for Global Migration: Migration as Decolonization?,” AJIL Unbound, 111: 142-146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barry, Brian, 1996. “Political Theory, Old and New,” in Goodin, R. E. and Klingemann, H.-D., ed., A New Handbook of Political Science (Oxford, Oxford University Press: 531-546).Google Scholar
Bauman, Zygmunt, 1995. “A Century of Camps?” in Bauman, Z., ed., Life in Fragments: Essays in Postmodern Morality (Oxford, Blackwell).Google Scholar
Behrend, Jacqueline and Whitehead, Laurence, eds, 2016a. Illiberal Practices: Territorial Variance within Large Federal Democracies (Baltimore MD, Johns Hopkins University Press).Google Scholar
Behrend, Jacqueline and Whitehead, Laurence, eds, 2016b. “The Struggle for Subnational Democracy,” Journal of Democracy, 27 (2): 155-169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrend, Jacqueline and Whitehead, Laurence, eds, 2017. “Prácticas Iliberales Y Antidemocráticas a Nivel Subnacional: Enfoques Comparados,” Colombia Internacional, 91 (91): 17-43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrend, Jacqueline and Whitehead, Laurence, eds, 2018. “Response to Robert Mickey’s Review of Illiberal Practices: Territorial Variance within Large Federal Democracies,” Perspectives on Politics, 16 (2): 483-483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, Duncan, 2014. “What Is Liberalism?,” Political Theory, 42 (6): 682-715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellamy, Richard and Baehr, Peter, 1993. “Carl Schmitt and the Contradictions of Liberal Democracy,” European Journal of Political Research, 23 (2): 163-185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bermeo, Nancy, 2016. “On Democratic Backsliding,” Journal of Democracy, 27 (1): 5-19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernardot, Marc, 2008. Camps d’étrangers (Bellecombe-en-Bauges, Croquant).Google Scholar
Boswell, Christina, 2007. “Theorizing Migration Policy: Is There a Third Way?,” International Migration Review, 41 (1): 75-100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2013. “Ausschluss Eingetragener Lebenspartnerschaften vom Ehegattensplitting ist verfassungswidrig,” Pressemitteilung, Nr. 41/2013 6 June 2013 [https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Pressemitteilungen/DE/2013/bvg13-041.html].Google Scholar
Capoccia, Giovanni, 2007. Defending Democracy: Reactions to Extremism in Interwar Europe (Baltimore MD/London, Johns Hopkins University Press).Google Scholar
Carens, Joseph H., 1987. “Aliens and Citizens: The Case for Open Borders,” The Review of Politics, 49 (2): 251-273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chimni, Bhupinder S., 1998. “The Geopolitics of Refugee Studies: A View from the South,” Journal of Refugee Studies, 11 (4): 350-374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebner, Julia, 2020. Going Dark: The Secret Social Lives of Extremists (London, Bloomsbury Publishing).Google Scholar
Erpenbeck, Jenny, 2017. Go, Went, Gone (London, Portobello Books).Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, David Scott, 2019. Refuge Beyond Reach: How Rich Democracies Repel Asylum Seekers (New York NY, Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, David Scott and Cook-Martín, David, 2014. Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, David S., Cook-Martín, David, García, Angela S. and Arar, Rawan, 2018. “Can You Become One of Us? A Historical Comparison of Legal Selection of ‘Assimilable’ Immigrants in Europe and the Americas,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44 (1): 27-47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeden, Michael, 1998. “Is Nationalism a Distinct Ideology?,” Political Studies, 46 (4): 748-765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeden, Michael, 2020. “Democracy Dis-Integrated: The Current Conceptual Confusion,” Journal of Political Ideologies, 25 (1): 1-10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galston, William A., 2018. “The Populist Challenge to Liberal Democracy,” Journal of Democracy, 29 (2): 5-19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gary, Gerstle and King, Desmond, 2020. “Spaces of Exception in American History,” in Gerstle, G. and Isaac, J., eds, States of Exception in American History (Chicago IL/London, The University of Chicago Press: 313-340).Google Scholar
Gibney, Matthew J., 2004. The Ethics and Politics of Asylum: Liberal Democracy and the Response to Refugees (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, Edward L., 2005. “Boundary Control: Subnational Authoritarianism in Democratic Countries,” World Politics, 58 (1): 101-132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibson, Edward L., 2012. Boundary Control: Subnational Authoritarianism in Federal Democracies (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glass, Ira, O’Toole, Molly and Green, Emily, 2019. “The Out Crowd”. This American Life [audio journalism], hosted by I. Glass.Google Scholar
Goeschel, Christian and Wachsmann, Nikolaus, 2010. “Before Auschwitz: The Formation of the Nazi Concentration Camps, 1933-9,” Journal of Contemporary History, 45 (3): 515-534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie, 2015. Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greiner, Bettina and Kramer, Alan, eds, 2013. Die Welt der Lager: Zur “Erfolgsgeschichte” einer Institution (Hamburg, Hamburger Edition).Google Scholar
Hansen, Randall and King, Desmond, 2000. “Illiberalism and the New Politics of Asylum: Liberalism’s Dark Side,” The Political Quarterly, 71 (4): 396-403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, Randall and King, Desmond, 2013. Sterilized by the State: Eugenics, Race, and the Population Scare in Twentieth-Century North America (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartz, Louis, 1955. The Liberal Tradition in America: An Interpretation of American Political Thought since the Revolution (New York NY, Harcourt, Brace & World).Google Scholar
Heizmann, Kristina, 2011. Fremd in der Fremde: Die Geschichte des Flüchtlings in Großbritannien und Deutschland, 1880-1925, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Konstanz.Google Scholar
Hollifield, James F., Martin, Philip L. and Orrenius, Pia M., eds, 2014. Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (Stanford CA, Stanford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isay, Ernst, 1923. Das deutsche Fremdenrecht: Ausländer und die Polizei (Berlin, Georg Stilke).Google Scholar
Jardina, Ashley, 2019. White Identity Politics (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Joppke, Christian, 2005. Selecting by Origin: Ethnic Migration in the Liberal State (Cambridge MA/London, Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Katzenstein, Mary F., Ibrahim, Leila M. and Rubin, Katherine D., 2010. “The Dark Side of American Liberalism and Felony Disenfranchisement,” Perspectives on Politics, 8 (4): 1035-1054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katznelson, Ira, 2005. When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America (New York NY/London, W.W. Norton).Google Scholar
Kauth, Jasper T., 2017. “‘Ein Stück Polizeistaat’. Fremdenrecht und Ausweisungen in der ersten deutschen Demokratie,” in Steffen, N. and Arendes, C., eds, Geflüchtet, Unerwünscht, Abgeschoben. Osteuropäische Juden in der Republik Baden 1918-1923 (Heidelberg, Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg: 185-214).Google Scholar
Kauth, Jasper T., 2018. “Fremdenrecht und Völkerbund: Das Scheitern der International Conference on the Treatment of Foreigners 1929,” Archiv des Völkerrechts, 56 (2): 202-228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Desmond, 1999. In the Name of Liberalism: Illiberal Social Policy in the USA and Britain (Oxford, Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Desmond S., 2000. Making Americans: Immigration, Race and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge MA, Havard University Press).Google Scholar
King, Desmond and Smith, Rogers M., 2011. Still a House Divided: Race and Politics in Obama’s America (Princeton NJ/Oxford, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
King, Desmond and Valdez, Inès, 2011. “From Workers to Enemies: National Security, State Building, and America’s War on Illegal Immigrants,” in Böss, M., ed., Narrating Peoplehood Amidst Diversity (Aarhus, Aarhus University Press: 145-182).Google Scholar
Kotek, Joël and Rigoulot, Pierre, 2000. Le Siècle des camps: emprisonnement, détention, extermination, cent ans de mal absolu (Paris, J. C. Lattès).Google Scholar
Kotek, Joël and Rigoulot, Pierre, 2001. Das Jahrhundert der Lager: Gefangenschaft, Zwangsarbeit, Vernichtung (Berlin/München, Propyläen Verlag).Google Scholar
Kramer, Alan, 2013. “Einleitung,” in Greiner, B. and Kramer, A., ed., Die Welt der Lager: Zur “Erfolgsgeschichte” einer Institution (Hamburg, Hamburger Edition: 7-42).Google Scholar
Krastev, Ivan and Holmes, Stephen, 2019. The Light That Failed: A Reckoning (London, Allen Lane).Google Scholar
Kymlicka, Will, 1995. Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford, Clarendon Press).Google Scholar
Laborde, Cécile, 2017. Liberalism’s Religion (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Erika, 2002. “The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882-1924,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 21 (3): 36-62.Google Scholar
Lee, E., 2019. America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States (New York NY, Basic Books).Google Scholar
Leerkes, Arjen and Broeder, D., 2013. “Deportable and Not So Deportable: Formal and Informal Functions of Administrative Immigration Detention,” in Anderson, B., Gibney, M. J. and Paoletti, E., eds, The Social, Political and Historical Contours of Deportation (New York NY/Heidelberg/Dordrecht/London, Springer: 79-104).Google Scholar
Levitsky, Steven and Way, Lucan A., 2002. “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism,” Journal of Democracy, 13 (2): 51-65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven and Way, Lucan A., 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War (New York NY/Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven and Ziblatt, Daniel, 2018. How Democracies Die (London, Viking).Google Scholar
Lucassen, Leo, 1996. Zigeuner: Die Geschichte eines polizeilichen Ordnungsbegriffes in Deutschland 1700-1945 (Cologne, Böhlau).Google Scholar
Lucassen, Leo, 1998. “The Great War and the Origins of Migration Control in Western Europe and the United States,” in Böcker, A., Groenendijk, K., Havinga, T. and Minderhoud, P. E., eds, Regulation of Migration: International Experiences (Amsterdam, Amsterdam Spinhuis: 45-72).Google Scholar
Lührmann, Anna, Medzihorksy, Juraj, Hindle, Garry and Lindberg, Staffan I., 2020. New Global Data on Political Parties: V-Party (Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute).Google Scholar
Mainwaring, Scott, Brinks, Daniel and Pérez-Liñán, Anibal, 2001. “Classifying Political Regimes in Latin America,” Studies in Comparative International Development, 36 (1): 37-65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mainwaring, Scott, Scully, Timothy R. and Cullell, Jorge Vargas, 2010. “Measuring Success in Democratic Governance,” in Mainwaring, S. and Scully, T., eds, Democratic Governance in Latin America (Stanford CA, Stanford University Press: 11-51).Google Scholar
Marantz, Andrew, 2020. Antisocial: How Online Extremists Broke America (London, Picador).Google Scholar
Mayblin, Lucy, 2017. Asylum after Empire: Colonial Legacies in the Politics of Asylum Seeking (London/New York NY, Roman & Littlefield International).Google Scholar
Mickey, Robert, 2015. Paths out of Dixie: The Democratization of Authoritarian Enclaves in America’s Deep South, 1944-1972 (Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press).Google Scholar
Mickey, Robert, 2018a. “Critical Dialogue:‘Illiberal Practices: Territorial Variance within Large Federal Democracies by Jacqueline Behrend and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore MD, Johns Hopkins University Press), 2016,’” Perspectives on Politics, 16 (2): 481-483.Google Scholar
Mickey, Robert, 2018b. “Response to Laurence Whitehead and Jacqueline Behrend’s Review of Paths out of Dixie: The Democratization of Authoritarian Enclaves in America’s Deep South, 1944–72,” Perspectives on Politics, 16 (2): 485-486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mill, John Stuart, 1864. On Liberty (Boston MA, Ticknor).Google Scholar
Miller, David, 2007. National Responsibility and Global Justice (Oxford, Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, David, 2008. “Immigrants, Nations, and Citizenship,” Journal of Political Philosophy, 16 (4): 371-390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, David, 2016. Strangers in Our Midst: The Political Philosophy of Immigration (Cambridge MA/London, Harvard University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Lisa L. 2014. “Racialized State Failure and the Violent Death of Michael Brown,” Theory and Event .,17 (3): 354-363.Google Scholar
Mills, Charles W., 1997. The Racial Contract (Ithaca NY/London, Cornell University Press).Google Scholar
Moya, Jose C., 1998. Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aires, 1850-1930 (Berkeley CA/London, University of California Press).Google Scholar
Mulhall, Stephen and Swift, Adam, 1996. Liberals and Communitarians (Oxford, Blackwell).Google Scholar
Nethery, Amy and Silverman, Stephanie J., 2015. Immigration Detention: The Migration of a Policy and Its Human Impact (London, Routledge).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neumann, Franz Leopold, 1942. Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism (London, Gollancz).Google Scholar
Nisbet, Robert A., 1943. “Rousseau and Totalitarianism,” Journal of Politics, 5 (2): 93-114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, Henry, 2002. Ireland since 1939 (Oxford, Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Pitzer, Andrea, 2017. One Long Night: A Global History of Concentration Camps (New York NY/Boston MA/London, Little, Brown and Company).Google Scholar
Promutico, Fabian, 2017. “Eine Alternative zur Abschiebung? Die Einrichtung der ersten Konzentrationslager,” in Steffen, N. and Arendes, C., eds, Geflüchtet, Unerwünscht, Abgeschoben. Osteuropäische Judenin der Republik Baden (1918-1923) (Heidelberg, Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg: 215-236).Google Scholar
Rana, Aziz, 2010. The Two Faces of American Freedom (Cambridge MA/London, Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Rana, Aziz, 2015. “Colonialism and Constitutional Memory,” UC Irvine Law Review, 5 (2): 263-288.Google Scholar
Rawls, John, 1999. A Theory of Justice (Cambridge MA, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press).Google Scholar
Rawls, John, 2005. Political Liberalism (New York NY, Columbia University Press).Google Scholar
Schedler, Andreas, 2002. “The Menu of Manipulation,” Journal of Democracy, 13 (2): 36-50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schenkkan, Nate, 2018. Confronting Illiberalism. Nations in Transit 2018 (Washington D.C./New York NY, Freedomhouse).Google Scholar
Settle, Jaime E., 2018. Frenemies: How Social Media Polarizes America (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, Stephanie J., 2013. The Normative Ethics of Immigration Detention in Liberal States, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Oxford.Google Scholar
Silverman, Stephanie J. and Massa, Evelyne, 2012. “Why Immigration Detention Is Unique,” Population, Space and Place, 18 (6): 677-686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skowronek, Stephen, Dearborn, John A. and King, Desmond S., 2021. Phantoms of a Beleaguered Republic: The Deep State and the Unitary Executive (New York NY, Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. M., 1993. “Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal, and Hartz: The Multiple Traditions in America,” American Political Science Review, 87 (3): 549-566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. M., 1997. Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven CT/London, Yale University Press).Google Scholar
Smith, Rogers M. and King, Desmond S., 2020. “White Protectionism in America,” Perspectives on Politics, 18 (4): 520-528.Google Scholar
Stears, Marc, 2001. “Beyond the Logic of Liberalism: Learning from Illiberalism in Britain and the United States,” Journal of Political Ideologies, 6 (2): 215-230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stears, Marc, 2007. “The Liberal Tradition and the Politics of Exclusion,” Annual Review of Political Science, 10 (1): 85-101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Dan, 2017. Concentration Camps: A Short History (Oxford, Oxford University Press).Google Scholar
Stone, Dan, 2019. Concentration Camps: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, Oxford University Press).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talmon, Jacob L., 1952. The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (London, Secker & Warburg).Google Scholar
Triadafilopoulos, Triadafilos, 2011. “Illiberal Means to Liberal Ends? Understanding Recent Immigrant Integration Policies in Europe,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 37 (6): 861-880.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waldron, Jeremy, 2019. “Rule by Law: A Much Maligned Preposition,” SSRN Electronic Journal [10.2139/ssrn.3378167].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walzer, Michael, 1983. Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York NY, Basic Books).Google Scholar
Welch, Michael and Schuster, Liza, 2005a. “Detention of Asylum Seekers in the UK and USA: Deciphering Noisy and Quiet Constructions,” Punishment & Society, 7 (4): 397-417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, Michael and Schuster, Liza, 2005b. “Detention of Asylum Seekers in the US, UK, France, Germany, and Italy: A Critical View of the Globalizing Culture of Control,” Criminal Justice, 5 (4): 331-355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitehead, Laurence and Behrend, Jacqueline, 2018. “Paths out of Dixie: The Democratization of Authoritarian Enclaves in America’s Deep South, 1944-1972, by Mickey, Robert. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015,” Perspectives on Politics, 16 (2): 483-485.Google Scholar
Zakaria, Fareed, 1997. “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,” Foreign Affairs, 76 (6): 22-43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zakaria, Fareed, 2003. The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad (New York NY, W.W. Norton & Co).Google Scholar
Zolberg, Aristide R., 1992. “Labour Migration and International Economic Regimes: Bretton Woods and After,” in Kritz, M. M., Lim, L. L. and Zlotni, H., eds, International Migration Systems: A Global Approach (Oxford, Clarendon Press: 315-334).Google Scholar
Zolberg, Aristide R., 1997. “Global Movements, Global Walls: Responses to Migration, 1880-1925,” in Wang, G., ed., Global History and Migrations (Boulder CA/Oxford, Westview Press: 279-307).Google Scholar

Newspaper Articles

Ackerman, E., Ambar, S., Amis, M., Applebaum, A., Arana, M., Atwood, M., Banville, J. et al., 2020. “A Letter on Justice and Open Debate,” Harper’s Magazine, 7 July 2020 [https://harpers.org/a-letter-on-justice-and-open-debate/].Google Scholar
Applebaum, A., 2018. “A Warning from Europe: The Worst is yet to Come,” The Atlantic, October 2018 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/10/poland-polarization/568324/].Google Scholar
Barber, L., Foy, H. and Barker, A., 2019. “Vladimir Putin Says Liberalism Has ‘Become Obsolete’,” Financial Times, 27 June 2019 [https://www.ft.com/content/670039ec-98f3-11e9-9573-ee5cbb98ed36].Google Scholar
Cienski, J., 2020. “Poland’s Mystery Election,” Politico, 5 April 2020 [https://www.politico.eu/article/poland-mystery-election-pis-law-and-justice-party-electoral-politics-coronavirus/].Google Scholar
DPA, 2019. “Bundesverfassungsgericht Kippt Harte Hartz-IV-Sanktionen,” Zeit, 5 November 2019 [https://www.zeit.de/news/2019-11/05/bundesverfassungsgericht-mit-urteil-zu-hartz-iv-sanktionen].Google Scholar
Foer, F., 2019. “Viktor Orbán’s War on Intellect,” The Atlantic, June 2019 [https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/06/george-soros-viktor-orban-ceu/588070/].Google Scholar
Foer, F., 2020. “Now We Know What Kind of Authoritarian Trump Aspires to Be,” The Atlantic, 14 February 2020 [https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/02/us-becoming-more-like-ukraine/606565/].Google Scholar
Hall, B. 2020. “EU member states struggle in efforts to defend rule of law.” Financial Times 5 October 2020 https://www.ft.com/content/c888d73b-e6d0-496d-ba7b-37992427afc7Google Scholar
Hopkins, V. and Shotter, J., 2019. “Liberal Mayors from Visegrad Four Unite to Defy Own Governments,” Financial Times, 16 December 2019 [https://www.ft.com/content/e9128e40-1d72-11ea-97df-cc63de1d73f4].Google Scholar
Ignatieff, M., 2020. “Hungary’s Abuse of the Rule of Law is Now Incontrovertible,” Financial Times, 7 October 2020 [https://www.ft.com/content/de45e58c-aac7-423e-9862-142d4abee160].Google Scholar
Khan, M., 2020. “Parties in European Parliament Threaten to Reject Coronavirus Budget,” Financial Times, 23 July 2020 [https://www.ft.com/content/c4bfed3d-4014-498d-b03a-0b1ea4ebffa0].Google Scholar
Kirst, N., 2020. “Academic Freedom Protected Via the CJEU? – the Advocate’s General Opinion in Commission V Hungary (C-66/18),” European Law Blog, 29 April 2020 [https://europeanlawblog.eu/2020/04/29/academic-freedom-protected-via-the-cjeu-the-advocates-general-opinion-in-commission-v-hungary-c-66-18/].Google Scholar
Krauß, I., 2019. “Spätestens nach sechs Monaten sollte man raus,” Deutschlandfunk, 1 August 2019 [https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/asylbewerber-in-ankerzentren-spaetestens-nach-sechs-monaten.1773.de.html?dram:article_id=455283].Google Scholar
McWhorter, J., 2019. “AOC’s Critics Are Pretending Not to Know How Language Works,” The Atlantic, 20 June 2019 [https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/defense-ocasio-cortez-concentration-camp-comment/592180/].Google Scholar
Monbiot, G., 2020. “The Trespass Trap: This New Law Could Make Us Strangers in Our Own Land,” The Guardian, 15 January 2020 [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/jan/15/tresspass-trap-law-land-travelling-people-rights].Google Scholar
Müller, J.-W., 2016. “The Problem with ‘Illiberal Democracy’,” Project Syndicate, 21 January 2016 [https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/the-problem-with-illiberal-democracy-by-jan-werner-mueller-2016-01?barrier=accesspaylog].Google Scholar
Müller, J.-W., 2018. “Beschädigte Demokratie,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 19 October 2018 [https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/die-gegenwart/jan-werner-mueller-beschaedigte-demokratie-15802788.html?printPagedArticle=true#pageIndex_0].Google Scholar
Novak, B., 2019. “Pushed from Hungary, University Created by Soros Shifts to Vienna,” The New York Times, 15 November 2019 [https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/15/world/europe/university-soros-vienna-orban.html].Google Scholar
Novak, B., 2020. “Hungary Moves to End Rule by Decree, but Orban’s Powers May Stay,” The New York Times, 16 June 2020 [https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/16/world/europe/hungary-coronavirus-orban.html].Google Scholar
O’Toole, M., 2019. “Asylum Officers Rebel against Trump Policies They Say Are Immoral and Illegal,” Los Angeles Times, 15 November 2019 [https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2019-11-15/asylum-officers-revolt-against-trump-policies-they-say-are-immoral-illegal].Google Scholar
Polakow-Suransky, S., 2017. “How Europe’s Far Right Fell in Love with Australia’s Immigration Policy,” The Guardian, 12 October 2017 [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/12/how-europes-far-right-fell-in-love-with-australias-immigration-policy].Google Scholar
Rankin, J., 2017. “Hungary Investigated by EU over Law Threatening Top University,” The Guardian, 12 April 2017 [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/12/frans-timmermans-eu-commission-central-european-university-budapest-hungary].Google Scholar
Serwer, A., 2019. “A Crime by Any Name,” The Atlantic, 3 July 2019 [https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/07/border-facilities/593239/].Google Scholar
Shotter, J. and Peel, M., 2020. “Poland’s judicial battle spreads confusion in EU,” Financial Times, 25 February 2020 [https://www.ft.com/content/e52959b4-440d-11ea-a43a-c4b328d9061c].Google Scholar
Simon, Z., 2019. “Trump Compared Orban to a Twin Brother, Ambassador Says,” Bloomberg, 15 May 2019 [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-05-15/trump-compared-orban-to-a-twin-brother-envoy-tells-444-hu].Google Scholar
Steffen, T., 2016. “Provozieren, Relativieren, Dementieren,” Zeit, 31 May 2016 [https://www.zeit.de/politik/deutschland/2016-05/afd-jerome-boateng-alexander-gauland-frauke-petry-medien-bjoern-hoecke/komplettansicht].Google Scholar
Taylor, K.-Y. 2020. “The Case for Ending the Supreme Court as We Know It.“ New Yorker 25 September 2020 https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/the-case-for-ending-the-supreme-court-as-we-know-itGoogle Scholar
Walker, S., 2018. “Liberal Hungarian University Warns Viktor Orbán Could Force It Abroad,” The Guardian, 15 May 2018 [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/15/central-european-university-ready-to-move-out-of-hungary].Google Scholar
Walker, S., 2019. “Budapest’s New Mayor: My Win Proves There’s More to Hungary Than Orbán,” The Guardian, 17 October 2019 [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/17/gergely-karacsony-mayor-budapest-eu-hungary-liberal-viktor-orban].Google Scholar
Wippermann, W., 2015. “1920: Wie Gehabt,” der Freitag, 26 August 2015 [https://www.freitag.de/autoren/der-freitag/1920-wie-gehabt].Google Scholar
Wurm, M., 1921. “Kulturschande,” Jüdische Arbeiterstimme, 15 July 1921.Google Scholar
Zurcher, A., 2020. “Us Election: Does Trump Have Power to Delay It?,” BBC News, 30 July 2020 [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-52326166].Google Scholar