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24 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, at p. 82 and p. 239.

25 Ibid, pp. 10–11.

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34 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, at p. 17.

35 Ibid, pp. 6–17

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43 Ibid, at p. 3.

44 Ibid, at p. 3.

45 Ibid, at p. 4.

46 Ibid, at p. 3.

47 Ibid, at p. 10–11.

48 Ibid, at p. 10.

49 Ibid, at p. 11.

50 Ibid, at p. 10.

51 Dolan, Hallsworth,Halpern et al., “MINDSPACE”, supra note 3, at p. 3.

52 Luc Bovens, “The Ethics of Nudge”, supra note 14, at p. 4

53 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, at p. 2 et sqq., p. 82 and p. 239.

54 Mitchell, “Libertarian Paternalism is an oxymoron”, supra note 16, at p. 4.

55 Vallgårda, “Nudge a new and better way to improve health?”, supra note 15, at p. 4

56 Burgess, “‘Nudging’ Healthy Lifestyles”, supra note 18

57 Furedi, “Defending moral autonomy against an army of nudgers”, supra note 23, at p. 4

58 Rebonato, Taking Liberties, supra note 17, at p. 4.

59 Burgess, “‘Nudging’ Healthy Lifestyles”, supra note 18.

60 Bovens, “The Ethics of Nudge”, supra note 14, at p. 4.

61 Burgess, “‘Nudging’ Healthy Lifestyles”, supra note 18.

62 Evan Selinger and Kyle P. Whyte, “Competence and trust in choice architecture”, 23(3–4) Knowledge, Technology & policy (2010), pp. 461–482.

63 Farrell and Shalizi, “‘Nudge policies’ are another name for coercion”, supra note 21, at p. 4.

64 Rebonato, Taking Liberties, supra note 17 at p. 4.

65 Furedi, “Defending moral autonomy against an army of nudgers”, supra note 23, at p. 4.

66 Bovens, “The Ethics of Nudge”, supra note 14, at p. 4.

68 Mitchell, “Libertarian Paternalism is an oxymoron”, supra note 16, at p. 4.

69 Farrell and Shalizi, “‘Nudge’ policies are another name for coercion”, supra note 21, at p. 4.

70 Vallgårda, “Nudge a new and better way to improve health?”, supra note 15, at p. 4,

71 Rebonato, Taking Liberties, supra note 17, at p. 4.

72 O´Neill, “A message to the illiberal Nudge Industry: Push off”, supra note 13, at p. 3.

73 Rebonato, Taking Liberties, supra note 17, at p. 4.

74 Farrell and Shalizi, “‘Nudge’ policies are another name for coercion”, supra note 21, at p. 4.

75 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, at pp. 4–5.

76 Ibid, at p. 5.

77 Ibid, at p. 5.

78 Rebonato, Taking Liberties, supra note 17, at p. 4,

79 Vallgårda, “Nudge a new and better way to improve health?”, supra note 15, at p. 4.

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82 This issue is also discussed by Riccardo Rebonato in Taking Liberties, supra note 17, at p. 4, under the heading of the ‘reversability’ of libertarian paternalism.

83 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, pp. 19–22.

84 Daniel Kahnemann, Thinking Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar,

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86 Ibid

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88 Kahnemann, Thinking Fast and Slow, supra note 84, at p. 13.

89 See e.g. Edward Cartwright, Behavioural Economics, (London: Routledge, 2011).

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97 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, at p. 245.

98 Ibid, at p. 245.

99 Ibid.

100 Ibid.

101 Ibid.

102 Ibid.

103 Ibid, at p. 246.

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106 Ibid, at p. 4.

107 Ibid, at p. 3.

108 Ibid, at p. 10–11.

109 Ibid, at p. 246.

110 Bovens, “The Ethics of nudge”, supra note 14, at p. 4, p. 13.

111 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, at p 2 et sqq.

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118 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, pp. 175–182.

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122 Ibid, at p. 13

123 Bovens does in fact briefly comment on this type of nudges, where the preference for consistency between actions and reflected preferences lead to behavioural change. However, since Bovens overemphasizes the cases where one is nudged toward some end that one does not agree to, his point becomes that when behavioural change occur in these instances due to consistency, this may lead to a fragmented self.

124 The cause of his mistake seems partially to be found in a conflation between the psychological sense of manipulation and the more comprehensive, neutral and technical sense, i.e. the intentional manipulation of a straightforward cause–and–effect relationship. It should be noted that nudging usually only changes frequencies and thus the effect is probabilistic rather than deterministic. In regard to manipulation, this is both good and bad news. The good news is that a deterministic change would render nudging more intrusive/manipulative, since it would indicate that we have no way to avoid its influence. However, this is not the case. Looking at the above typology, the closest one comes to such a deterministic relationship seems to be type 1 nudges, where the cause–andeffect relationship may be conjectured to be more deterministic than for type 2 nudges, since there is no active decision–making that could interfere with the Behaviour change pursued. Especially, when a type 2 nudge is epistemic transparent does this possibility seem to arise. Hence, in this “technical” sense of manipulation, type 1 nudges in general seem more robust and thus manipulative than type 2 nudges in general. The case for nudging as manipulation in the “technical” sense seems more probable when applied to automatic behaviour than to choice. Yet, the reason why transparency may undermine the efficacy or robustness of a nudge does not seem to hang solely on the distinction between type 1 and type 2 nudges. In the cases for which Bovens claims that transparency undermines effect, it rather seems to be the combination of the transparency of a type 2 nudge with the fact that the aim nudged towards do not square with the reflected preferences of the citizen, that is at fault. For instance, a reader of Spiked may recognize the fly–in–the–urinal and decide to pee on the wall as a response to the intervention. Bovens claim thus seems to result from an over–emphasis on transparent type 2 nudges that seek to promote behavioural changes the end or means of which citizens do not agree with, rather than from nudging as such.

125 Evan Selinger and Kyle Whyte, “Is there a right way to nudge? The Practice and Ethics of Choice Architecture”, 5(10) Sociology Compass (2011), pp. 923–935.

126 Kahneman and Tversky, “Choices, values, and frames”, supra note 91, at p. 22.

127 Chris Branson; Bobby Duffy; Chris Perry et al., “Acceptable Behaviour: Public Opinion on Behaviour Change Policy”, supra note 81, at p. 15.

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135 Thaler and Sunstein, Nudge, supra note 1, pp. 236–251.

136 Ibid, at p. 244.

137 Ibid, at p. 245.

138 Ibid, at p. 246.

139 Ibid, at p. 246.

140 In fact this road to behavioural change may be evaluated as even less invasive and less manipulative than the provision of information. Information is hard to provide in an objective way, and for instance in the case of prompted choice for organ donation, it is only the act of taking a stand on the issue which is highlighted as important, rather than what public policy–makers deem as the right information about this.

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146 Bovens, “The Ethics of Nudge”, supra note 14, at p. 4.