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² UNHCR, ‘Refugees Speak of Dreadful Reality Inside Lesvos’ Moria Camp’ (2020), available at: {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5Xv5e-35Io} accessed 19 February 2020; Annie Chapman, ‘A doctor's story: Inside the “living hell” of Moria refugee camp’, The Observer (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/09/moria-refugee-camp-doctors-story-lesbos-greece} accessed 9 February 2020.

³ Eva Cossé, ‘Greece's Moria Camp Fire: What's Next? Refugees Now Sleeping on the Streets Need Protection and Assistance’, Human Rights Watch (HRW) (2020), available at: {https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/09/12/greeces-moria-camp-fire-whats-next} accessed 22 September 2020.

⁴ European Commission, ‘Intervention in the European Parliament Plenary Session Debate on “The Need for an Immediate and Humanitarian EU Response to the Current Situation in the Refugee Camp in Moria”’ (2020), available at: {https://ec.europa.eu/commission/commissioners/2019-2024/johansson/announcements/intervention-european-parliament-plenary-session-debate-need-immediate-and-humanitarian-eu-response_en} accessed 17 September 2020; Daphne Panayotatos, ‘Greece must reform its failed asylum policies now’, The New Humanitarian, available at: {https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/opinion/2020/10/13/Greece-reform-refugee-asylum-policies?utm_source=The+New+Humanitarian&utm_campaign=9dcac36f04-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2020_10_16_Weekly&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d842d98289-9dcac36f04-75541537} accessed 13 October.

⁵ Throughout the article we refer to migrants, although we recognise that many of those residing in Moria camp are refugees as defined under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, and they are all ‘migrants in vulnerable situations’ who ‘are unable to effectively enjoy their human rights, are at increased risk of violations and abuse and who, accordingly, are entitled to call on a duty bearer's heightened duty of care’: UN Human Rights Council, ‘Principles and Practical Guidance on the Protection of the Human Rights of Migrants in Vulnerable Situations’, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, A/HRC/37/34 (2018), p. 5, available at: {https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/A/HRC/37/34} accessed 1 March 2021.

⁶ Marianna Karakoulaki, ‘New camp for refugees in Greece “worse than Moria”’, DW (2020), available at: {https://www.dw.com/en/greece-moria-refugees-new-camp-conditions/a-55053895} accessed 26 September 2020.

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¹⁶ While we refer to ‘humanitarian actors’ when referring to research participants in order to protect anonymity, we recognise that different humanitarian organisations and individuals have different roles, different agendas, and different perspectives that are also not necessarily fixed. The fact that the humanitarian community is diverse and does not always present a united front is shown in the later section on inter-agency competition and criticism and where we refer to the different approaches taken by humanitarian actors when facing the dilemma of whether engagement in Moria is complicity with a practice that causes great harm to migrant residents or, conversely, is more essential.

¹⁷ With the exception of Salam Aldeen who was willing to revoke his right to anonymity, and whose arrest is widely known and influential among volunteers: his specific identity and story was therefore considered to be important to our analysis of the impact of news of arrests.

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²¹ BBC, ‘The worst refugee camp on Earth’.

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²⁴ Bigo, ‘Security and immigration’; Huysmans, ‘The European Union and the securitization of migration’.

²⁵ Skleparis, Dimitris, ‘(In)securitization and illiberal practices on the fringe of the EU’, European Security, 25:1 (2016), pp. 92–111CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bigo, Didier and Tsoukala, Anastassia, ‘Understanding (in)security’, in Bigo, Didier and Tsoukala, Anastassia (eds), Terror, Insecurity and Liberty: Illiberal Practices of Liberal Regimes after 9/11 (New York: Routledge, 2008), pp. 1–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²⁷ Albahari, ‘Death and the Modern State’, p. ii.

²⁸ Tofighian, Omid ‘Introducing Manus Prison theory: Knowing border violence’, Globalizations, 17:7 (2020), pp. 1138–56 (p. 1140)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at: {DOI: 10.1080/14747731.2020.1713547}.

²⁹ Albahari, ‘Death and the Modern State’, p. 29; Rachel Donadio, ‘“Welcome to Europe. Now go home”’, The Atlantic (2019), available at: {https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/11/greeces-moria-refugee-camp-a-european-failure/601132/} accessed 18 October 2020; Helena Smith, ‘“We left fearing for our lives”: Doctors set upon by mob in Lesbos’, The Guardian (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/04/we-left-fearing-for-our-lives-doctors-set-upon-by-mob-in-lesbos} accessed 18 October 2020.

³⁰ Michel Foucault, ‘Society Must Be Defended’: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975–76, trans. David Macey (New York: Picador, 2003 [orig. pub. 1997]); Alexander Weheliye, Habeas Viscus: Racializing Assemblages, Biopolitics, and Black Feminist Theories of the Human (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014).

³¹ Bigo, and Tsoukala, ‘Understanding (in)security’.

³² Goldberg, David, The Threat of Race: Reflections on Racial Neoliberalism (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³³ See S. M. Reid-Henry, ‘Humanitarianism as liberal diagnostic: Humanitarian reason and the political rationalities of the liberal will-to-care’, Transactions, 39 (2014), pp. 418–31 on how humanitarianism ‘has the potential to reinforce or set limits on state powers and market forces’ (p. 428).

³⁴ Polly Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Humanitarian borderwork’, in Cengiz Gunay and Nina Witjes (eds), Border Politics: Defining Spaces of Governance and Forms of Transgressions (New York: Springer 2017), pp. 85–103.

³⁵ Foucault, ‘Society must be defended’, p. 241; Albahari, ‘Death and the Modern State’; Luca Mavelli, ‘Governing populations through the humanitarian government of refugees: Biopolitical care and racism in the European refugee crisis’, Review of International Studies, 43:5 (2017), pp. 809–32; Squire, ‘Governing migration through death’.

³⁶ Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’.

³⁷ Ibid., p. 40.

³⁸ Eric Reidy, ‘Winter warnings for Europe's largest refugee camp’, The New Humanitarian (2019), available at: {https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news-feature/2019/11/14/Greece-Moria-winter-refugees?fbclid=IwAR2tim9arUXxydk41ubOhtsKMHPAB_cz1B1tkR0ZZ1O1GpqWG7d7Lj7bBz0} accessed on 18 October 2020.

³⁹ Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’.

⁴⁰ Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, p. 40.

⁴¹ Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2017 [orig. pub. 1951]).

⁴² Agamben, Homo Sacer.

⁴³ Doty, Roxanne, ‘Bare life: Border-crossing deaths and spaces of moral alibi’, Society and Space, 29:4 (2011), pp. 599–612Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Squire, ‘Governing migration through death’, p. 513; see also Aradau, Claudia and Tazzioli, Martina, ‘Biopolitics multiple: Migration, extraction, subtraction’, Millennium, 48:2 (2020), pp. 198–220CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁵ Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’; Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’.

⁴⁶ Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’; Aradau and Tazzioli, ‘Biopolitics multiple’; Weheliye, Habeas Viscus; Thom Davies and Arshad Isakjee, ‘Ruins of empire: Refugees, race and the postcolonial geographies of European migrant camps’, Geoforum, 102 (2019), pp. 214–17.

⁴⁷ BBC, ‘The worst refugee camp on Earth’.

⁴⁸ UNHCR, ‘Refugees Speak of Dreadful Reality’; Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’; Iliadou, Evgenia, ‘Safe havens and prison islands: The politics of protection and deterrence of border crossers on Lesvos island’, Graduate Journal of Social Science, 15:1 (2019), p. 81Google Scholar; Refugee Trauma Initiative (RTI), ‘The Impact of COVID-19 on Refugees in Greece’ (2020), available at: {https://static1.squarespace.com/static/577646af893fc0b5001fbf21/t/5ef0bb675598594c56fcad77/1592835023114/2020-06_RTI_COVID19_REFUGEESGR.pdf} accessed 16 October 2020, p. 6.

⁴⁹ Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

⁵⁰ Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

⁵¹ See European Union, Council of the European Union, EU-Turkey Statement (2016), available at: {https://www.refworld.org/docid/5857b3444.html} accessed 1 April 2021.

⁵² Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 3 December 2019.

⁵³ Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Humanitarian borderwork’.

⁵⁴ Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 8 June 2020; see also Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’; Apostolos Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind” and access to protection in the Greek Islands in the COVID-19 era’, International Migration, 58 (2020), pp. 264–6.

⁵⁵ Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’; Harriet Grant, ‘UN calls for urgent evacuation of Lesbos refugee camp’, The Guardian (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/feb/11/un-calls-for-urgent-evacuation-of-lesbos-refugee-camp} accessed 18 October 2020.

⁵⁶ BBC, ‘The worst refugee camp on Earth’; interview with Rita, female Norwegian volunteer in her early fifties, 5 December 2019.

⁵⁷ Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

⁵⁸ Chapman, ‘A doctor's story’.

⁵⁹ Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and coordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

⁶⁰ Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 3 December 2019.

⁶¹ Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

⁶² Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 3 December 2019; and see Refugee Support Aegean (RSA), ‘Moira Nightmare’ (2020), available at: {https://rsaegean.org/en/moria-nightmare/} accessed 18 October 2020; Willemine van de Wiel, Carla Castillo-Laborde, Francisco Urzúa, Michelle Fish, and Willem Scholte, ‘Mental health consequences of long-term stays in refugee camps: Preliminary evidence from Moria’, BMC International Health and Human Rights (2020), available at: {DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-18160/v1}.

⁶³ Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), ‘Overcrowded, Dangerous and Insufficient Access to Healthcare in Moria’ (2018), available at: {https://www.msf.org/greece-overcrowded-dangerous-and-insufficient-access-healthcare-moria} accessed 18 October 2020.

⁶⁴ MSF, ‘Confronting the Mental Health Emergency on Samos and Lesvos: Why the Containment of Asylum Seekers on the Greek Islands Must End’ (2017), available at: {http://www.msf.org/sites/msf.org/files/2017_10_mental_health_greece_report_final_low.pdf} accessed 18 October 2020.

⁶⁵ BBC, ‘The worst refugee camp on Earth’; ‘Lesbos migrant camp children “say they want to die”’ (2019), available at: {https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oL6HLA7JxoY} accessed 18 October 2020.

⁶⁶ Interview with Phoebe, female Greek journalist in her mid-thirties, 5 June 2020.

⁶⁷ See also HRW, ‘Greece: Camp Conditions Endanger Women, Girls’ (2019), available at: {https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/12/04/greece-camp-conditions-endanger-women-girls} accessed 18 October 2020; Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’; RSA, ‘Moira Nightmare’.

⁶⁸ Joint interview with Ariel and Vidar, Norwegian volunteers (female and male) in their late seventies, 2 December 2019.

⁶⁹ Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

⁷⁰ Jess Staufenberg, ‘Refugee crisis: Three people stabbed in riots amid “chaotic” and unsanitary conditions in Greek camps’, Independent (2016), available at: {https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/refugee-crisis-stabbed-riots-greek-camps-a6963481.html} accessed 18 October 2020; Andrea Vogt, ‘Teenager killed and two injured in stabbing at notorious Lesbos refugee camp’, The Telegraph (2019), available at: {https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2019/08/25/teenager-killed-two-injured-stabbing-notorious-lesbos-refugee/} accessed 18 October 2020.

⁷¹ Interview with Phoebe, female Greek journalist in her mid-thirties, 6 May 2020.

⁷² UNHCR, ‘Shelter’, available at: {https://www.unhcr.org/shelter.html} accessed 27 January 2020.

⁷³ Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’, p. 1264.

⁷⁴ Galtung, Johan, ‘Violence, peace, and peace research’, Journal of Peace Research, 6:3 (1969), pp. 167–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁵ Ibid., p. 1270.

⁷⁶ Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, p. 40.

⁷⁷ Isakjee, Arshad, Davies, Thom, Obradović-Wochnik, Jelena, and Augustová, Karolína, ‘Liberal violence and the racial borders of the European Union’, Antipode, 52:6 (2020), pp. 1751–73 (p. 1751)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁸ Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’.

⁷⁹ Emma Laurie and Ian Shaw, ‘Violent conditions: The injustices of being’, Political Geography, 65 (2018), pp. 8–16; Isakjee et al., ‘Liberal violence’.

⁸⁰ Katy Fallon and Harriet Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case sparks fears for refugee camp’, The Guardian (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/mar/11/lesbos-coronavirus-case-sparks-fears-for-refugee-camp-moria} accessed 18 October 2020.

⁸¹ HRW, ‘Greece: Move Asylum Seekers, Migrants to Safety’ (2020), available at: {https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/03/24/greece-move-asylum-seekers-migrants-safety} accessed 18 October 2020; Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

⁸² Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 6 August 2020; see also ‘Greece: Fire sweeps through refugee camp on virus lockdown’, CNBC (2020), available at: {https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/09/greece-fire-sweeps-through-refugee-camp-on-virus-lockdown.html} accessed 17 October 2020.

⁸³ Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

⁸⁴ HRW, ‘Greece: Move Asylum Seekers, Migrants to Safety’; UNHCR, ‘Key Legal Considerations on Access to Territory for Persons in Need of International Protection in the Context of the COVID-19 Response’ (2020), available at: {https://www.refworld.org/docid/5e7132834.html} accessed 17 October 2020.

⁸⁵ Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

⁸⁶ Fallon and Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case’.

⁸⁷ Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

⁸⁸ Sarah Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster”, aid groups warn’, The New Humanitarian (2020), available at: {https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2020/03/27/greece-island-refugee-camps-coronavirus} accessed 17 October 2020; RTI, ‘The Impact of COVID-19’.

⁸⁹ Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave No One Behind”’.

⁹⁰ Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster’”; Veizis, ‘Commentary: “Leave no one behind”’.

⁹¹ Cossé, ‘Greece's Moria Camp Fire’.

⁹² Just over a week later there were 243 positive cases of COVID-19 in Kara Tepe; Sertan Sanderson, ‘More than 240 new COVID-19 infections among migrants on Lesbos��, Info Migrants (2020), available at: {https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/27464/more-than-240-new-covid-19-infections-among-migrants-on-lesbos} accessed 17 October 2020.

⁹³ Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020.

⁹⁴ Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

⁹⁵ Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster”’; Katy Fallon, ‘Child killed in Lesbos refugee camp fire’, The Guardian (2020), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/16/child-killed-in-lesbos-refugee-camp-fire} accessed on 17 October 2020.

⁹⁶ Cossé, ‘Greece's Moria Camp Fire’.

⁹⁷ Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020.

⁹⁸ Cossé, ‘Greece's Moria Camp Fire’; ‘Moria migrants tear-gassed by Greek police in protest over new camp’, BBC (2020), available at: {https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54131212} accessed 12 September 2020.

⁹⁹ Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020; and see Sofia Barbarani, ‘After Moria fire, refugees decry conditions in new camp on Lesbos’, Aljazeera (2020), available at: {https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/09/18/after-moria-fire-refugees-decry-conditions-in-new-camp-on-lesbos/} accessed 18 October 2020.

¹⁰⁰ HRW, ‘Lead Poisoning Concerns in New Migrant Camp’ (2020), available at: {https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/08/greece-lead-poisoning-concerns-new-migrant-camp}.

¹⁰¹ Benjamin Bathke, ‘Doctors confirm rape of 3-year-old girl at Kara Tepe migrant camp’, InfoMigrants (21 December 2020), available at: {https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/29226/doctors-confirm-rape-of-3-year-old-girl-at-kara-tepe-migrant-camp}.

¹⁰² Interview with Anna, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her late forties, 28 September 2020; see also Karakoulaki, ‘New camp for refugees’.

¹⁰³ European Commission, ‘Intervention’.

¹⁰⁴ Moria camp was administratively under the Hellenic Ministry of Migration Policy and any reference to ‘authorities’ in this article is a reference to this Ministry unless stated otherwise.

¹⁰⁵ Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

¹⁰⁶ Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’.

¹⁰⁷ ‘Lesvos mayor prevents freighter from unloading huts for Moria hotspot’, The Greek Observer (2017), available at: {https://thegreekobserver.com/blog/2017/12/11/lesvos-mayor-prevents-freighter-unloading-huts-moria-hotspot/} accessed 18 October 2020.

¹⁰⁸ Interview with Erica, female Norwegian volunteer and researcher in her early thirties, 10 December 2019.

¹⁰⁹ Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

¹¹⁰ UNHCR, Emergency Handbook. Site Planning for Transit Camps (Geneva: UNHCR, 2020).

¹¹¹ Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

¹¹² Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’; Staufenberg, ‘Refugee crisis’; Vogt, ‘Teenager killed’.

¹¹³ Agier, Managing the Undesirables.

¹¹⁴ Basaran, ‘The saved and the drowned’.

¹¹⁵ Eric Maddox, ‘AYS special from Lesvos: Right-wing attacks on refugees, volunteers, and locals’, Are You Syrious (2020), available at: {https://medium.com/are-you-syrious/ays-special-from-lesvos-right-wing-attacks-on-refugees-volunteers-and-locals-9f98779aef8e} accessed 18 October 2020.

¹¹⁶ Reidy, ‘Winter warnings’; ‘How the Greek island of Lesbos became a hub of right-wing activism’, TRT World (2020), available at: {https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/how-the-greek-island-of-lesbos-became-a-hub-of-right-wing-activism-36275} accessed 18 October 2020.

¹¹⁷ Fallon and Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case’; Maddox, ‘AYS Special from Lesvos’; Smith, ‘“We left fearing for our lives”’; Souli, ‘Greek island refugee camps face coronavirus “disaster”’.

¹¹⁸ ‘Female refugees face dire situation after aid workers flee Lesbos’, ITV (2020), available at: {https://www.itv.com/news/2020-03-07/female-refugees-face-dire-situation-after-aid-workers-flee-lesbos/} accessed 18 October 2020; Grant, ‘Lesbos coronavirus case sparks fears for refugee camp’.

¹¹⁹ Interview with Olga, female Norwegian humanitarian professional in her mid-thirties, 26 November 2019.

¹²⁰ Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

¹²¹ Interview with Igor, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-fifties, 26 November 2019.

¹²² Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

¹²³ Interview with Leonard, male American in his early twenties, 26 November 2019.

¹²⁴ Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

¹²⁵ Allsopp, ‘The European Facilitation Directive’; Yasha Maccanico, Ben Hayes, Samuel Kenny, and Frank Barat, ‘The Shrinking Space for Solidarity with Migrants and Refugees: How the European Union and Member States Target and Criminalize Defenders of the Rights of People on the Move’, Transnational Institute (Amsterdam, 2018), available at: {https://www.tni.org/files/publication-downloads/web_theshrinkingspace.pdf} accessed 18 October 2020; Lina Vosyliūtė and Carmine Conte, ‘Crackdown on NGOs and Volunteers Helping Refugees and Other Migrants’, ReSOMA (2019), available at: {http://www.resoma.eu/sites/resoma/resoma/files/policy_brief/pdf/Final%20Synthetic%20Report%20-%20Crackdown%20on%20NGOs%20and%20volunteers%20helping%20refugees%20and%20other%20migrants_1.pdf} accessed 18 October 2020; UN Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions, ‘Saving Lives is Not a Crime’, Report of the Special Rapporteur to the General Assembly, A/73/314 (7 August 2018).

¹²⁶ Allsopp, ‘The European Facilitation Directive’.

¹²⁷ Sandvik, Kristin, ‘Juridification, criminalization and lawfare in humanitarian space’, in Salter, Mark et al. (eds), ‘Horizon scan: Critical security studies for the next 50 years’, Security Dialogue, 50:4S (2019), pp. 9–37, 28–9Google Scholar.

¹²⁸ Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’, p. 75.

¹²⁹ MSF, ‘Greece: Three Years of “Cruel, Inhumane, and Cynical” Treatment of Migrants and Refugees’ (2019), available at: {https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/news/greece-three-years-cruel-inhumane-and-cynical-treatment-migrants-and} accessed 17 October 2020.

¹³⁰ Interview with Erica, female Norwegian volunteer and researcher in her early thirties, 10 December 2019.

¹³¹ Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

¹³² Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian male volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

¹³³ Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

¹³⁴ Notis Mitarakis ‘Radical Change in the Image of Immigrants: Who Pays Immigrants' Benefits’ (11 August 2020), available at: {https://www.newsit.gr/politikh/mitarakis-sto-newsit-gr-riziki-allagi-stin-eikona-tou-metanasteytikou-poios-plironei-ta-epidomata-ton-metanaston/3137348/}; Daphne Panayotatos, ‘Blocked at Every Pass: How Greece's Policy of Exclusion Harms Asylum Seekers and Refugees’, Issue Brief, Relief International (24 November 2020), available at: {https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports/2020/11/20/blocked-at-every-pass-how-greeces-policy-of-exclusion-harms-asylum-seekers-and-refugees}.

¹³⁵ Maccanico et al., ‘The Shrinking Space’; Mavelli, ‘Governing populations’.

¹³⁶ Mavelli, ‘Governing populations’.

¹³⁷ Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’, p. 77.

¹³⁸ Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

¹³⁹ Howden, ‘Moria’, p. 66.

¹⁴⁰ Ibid.

¹⁴¹ Mary Malafeka, ‘Moria Refugee Camp: Restriction of Movement and Living Conditions’, University of Oxford (2018), available at: {https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/research-subject-groups/centre-criminology/centreborder-criminologies/blog/2018/04/moria-refugee} accessed 18 October 2020.

¹⁴² Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’, p. 80.

¹⁴³ Ibid.

¹⁴⁴ Davies, Isakjee, and Dhesi, ‘Violent inaction’, p. 1280.

¹⁴⁵ Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’, p. 81.

¹⁴⁶ Mbembe, ‘Necropolitics’, p. 40.

¹⁴⁷ Iliadou, ‘Safe havens’.

¹⁴⁸ Bosworth, Inside Immigration Detention; Moran, Carceral Geography; Mountz et al., ‘Conceptualizing detention’; Howden, ‘Moria’; Oliver, Carceral Humanitarianism; Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’; Tazzioli and Garelli, ‘Containment beyond detention’.

¹⁴⁹ Tazzioli and Garelli, ‘Containment beyond detention’, p. 16.

¹⁵⁰ McConnachie, ‘Camps of containment’, p. 406.

¹⁵¹ Bauman, Zygmunt, Modernity and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

¹⁵² Foucault, ‘Society must be defended’; see also Albahari, Crimes of Peace; Mavelli, ‘Governing populations’; Squire, ‘Governing migration through death’.

¹⁵³ McConnachie, ‘Camps of containment’.

¹⁵⁴ Interview with Amalie, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 14 November 2019.

¹⁵⁵ Interview with Salam Aldeen, founding member of the NGO ‘Team Humanity’, 28 January 2020.

¹⁵⁶ Interview with Ole, male Danish volunteer in his early thirties, 29 February 2020.

¹⁵⁷ Ministerial Decision 23/13532 – Government Gazette 5272 / Β / 30-11-2020, ‘General Regulations for the Operation of Temporary Reception Structures and Temporary Accommodation Structures for Third Country Nationals or Stateless Persons, which Operate with the Care of the Reception and Identification Service’, Greek Minister of Immigration and Asylum (30 November 2020), Art. 8.1, available at: {https://www.e-nomothesia.gr/kat-allodapoi/upourgike-apophase-23-13532-phek-5272b-30-11-2020.html}; Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor, ‘Greece's New Confidentiality Law Aims to Conceal Grave Violations against Asylum Seekers’ (11 December 2020), available at: {https://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/4057/Greece%E2%80%99s-new-confidentiality-law-aims-to-conceal-grave-violations-against-asylum-seekers}.

¹⁵⁸ Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism.

¹⁵⁹ Agamben, Homo Sacer.

¹⁶⁰ Doty, ‘Bare life’.

¹⁶¹ Leyens, Jacques-Philippe, Paladino, Paola, Rodriguez-Torres, Ramon, Vaes, Jeroen, Demoulin, Stephanie, Rodriguez, Armando, and Gaunt, Ruth, ‘The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups’, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4:2 (2000), pp. 186–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶² Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust.

¹⁶³ Basaran, ‘The saved and the drowned’, p. 215.

¹⁶⁴ Warsan Shire, ‘Home’ (poem), SeekersGuidance (2015), available at: {https://seekersguidance.org/articles/social-issues/home-warsan-shire/}accessed 18 October 2020.

¹⁶⁵ Interview with Erica, female Norwegian volunteer and researcher in her early thirties, 10 December 2019.

¹⁶⁶ Goffman, Erving, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1959)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁷ Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

¹⁶⁸ Interview with Angus, male Swedish humanitarian professional and field manager in his mid-forties, 9 March 2020.

¹⁶⁹ Interview with Angus.

¹⁷⁰ Interview with Angus.

¹⁷¹ Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

¹⁷² Interview with Nina, female Norwegian volunteer in her late fifties, 26 November 2019.

¹⁷³ See also Howden, ‘Moria’.

¹⁷⁴ Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

¹⁷⁵ Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

¹⁷⁶ Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

¹⁷⁷ Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’, p. 71.

¹⁷⁸ Interview with Charles, male Norwegian humanitarian professional in his late forties, 6 June 2019; and see Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Moria hotspot’.

¹⁷⁹ Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

¹⁸⁰ Aila Spathopoulou, Anna Carastathis, and Mytro Tsilimpounidi, ‘“Vulnerable refugees” and “voluntary deportations”: Performing the hotspot, embodying its violence’, Geopolitics (2020), available at: {DOI: 10.1080/14650045.2020.1772237}.

¹⁸¹ Donadio, ‘“Welcome to Europe. Now go home”’.

¹⁸² Interview with Jenny, female Norwegian volunteer in her early fifties, 20 January 2020.

¹⁸³ Interview with Stephen, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

¹⁸⁴ Interview with Carl, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-twenties, 12 May 2019.

¹⁸⁵ Interview with Evan, male Norwegian volunteer in his mid-forties, 11 December 2019.

¹⁸⁶ Interview with Greta, female English volunteer and co-ordinator in her late forties, 30 January 2020.

¹⁸⁷ Interview with Greta.

¹⁸⁸ Interview with Jenny, female Norwegian volunteer in her early fifties, 20 January 2020.

¹⁸⁹ Reece Jones, Violent Borders: Refugees and the Right to Move (London: Verso, 2016).

¹⁹⁰ Maribel Casas-Cortes et al., ‘New keywords: Migration and borders’, Cultural Studies, 29:1 (2015), pp. 55–87.

¹⁹¹ Diana Martin, Claudio Minca, and Irit Katz, ‘Rethinking the camp: On spatial technologies of power and resistance’, Progress in Human Geography, 44:4 (2020), pp. 743–68; McConnachie, ‘Camps of containment’.

¹⁹² Ashika Singh, ‘Arendt in the refugee camp: The political agency of world-building’, Political Geography, 77:102149 (2020); Ramadan, Adam, ‘Spatialising the refugee camp’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 38:1 (2012), pp. 65–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹³ Sandri, Elisa, ‘“Volunteer humanitarianism”: Volunteers and humanitarian aid in the Jungle refugee camp of Calais’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44:1 (2018), pp. 65–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁹⁴ Interview with Lennard, male Norwegian volunteer in his late seventies, 15 January 2020.

¹⁹⁵ Martin, Minca, and Katz, ‘Rethinking the camp’; Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Hotspots’.

¹⁹⁶ Singh, ‘Arendt in the refugee camp’; Ramadan, ‘Spatialising the refugee camp’; Davies and Isakjee, ‘Ruins of empire’; Agier, Managing the Undesirables; Parekh, Serena, Refugees and the Ethics of Forced Displacement (London: Routledge, 2017)Google Scholar.

¹⁹⁷ Ramadan, ‘Spatialising the refugee camp’, p. 71; Martin, Minca, and Katz, ‘Rethinking the camp’.

¹⁹⁸ Casas-Cortes et al., ‘New keywords’.

¹⁹⁹ Pallister-Wilkins, ‘Hotspots’.

²⁰⁰ Weber, Leanne, ‘From state-centric to transversal borders: Resisting the “structurally embedded border” in Australia’, Theoretical Criminology, 23:2 (2019), pp. 228–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁰¹ Dadusc and Mudu, ‘Care without control’, p. 1.

²⁰² Gerard and Weber, ‘Humanitarian borderwork’, p. 266.