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¹³ It is noteworthy, however, that a few cyber-security related articles have been published in high-ranking political science journals recently: Gartzke, Erik, ‘The myth of cyberwar: Bringing war in cyberspace back down to Earth’, International Security, 38:2 (2013), pp. 41–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar or Valeriano, Brandon G. and Maness, Ryan, ‘The dynamics of cyber conflict between rival antagonists, 2001–11’, Journal of Peace Research, 51:3 (2014), pp. 347–360CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²² See, for example, Thomas Rid, Cyber War Will Not Take Place (London: Hurst & Company, 2013).

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²⁶ In this article, we stress the deliberate element to differentiate them from ‘failures’ and ‘accidents’. This is justified by the fact that ‘attacks’, potentially damaging events orchestrated by a human adversary, are the sole focus of the current cyber-security discourse.

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²⁹ Ibid., p. 119.

³⁰ Arns, Inke, ‘Code as performative speech act’, Artnodes (2005), p, 7, available at: {www.uoc.edu/artnodes/eng/arns0505.pdf}Google Scholar accessed 23 August 2014.

³¹ Parikka, ‘Ethologies of software art’, p. 125.

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⁴⁰ Latour, Bruno, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 128Google Scholar.

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⁴⁴ Yet, not all ANT research has been based on ethnography and it has not been exclusively committed to fieldwork. For instance, Law’s work on Portuguese vessels and international control has relied upon a detailed historical reconstruction. Law, John, ‘On the methods of long distance control: Vessels, navigation and the Portuguese route to India’, in J. Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), pp. 234–263Google Scholar or Law, John, Organizing Modernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994)Google Scholar.

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⁴⁸ Latour, Bruno, The Pasteurization of France (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), pp. 3–44Google Scholar.

⁴⁹ Law and Singleton, ‘Object lessons’; Law and Mol, ‘On metrics and fluids’.

⁵⁰ Mol and Law, ‘Regions, networks and fluids’, p. 643.

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⁵⁵ Mol and Law, ‘Regions, networks and fluids’, p. 649.

⁵⁶ Law, John, ‘Actor Network Theory and Material Semiotics’ (April 2007), p. 8, available at: {http://www. heterogeneities.net/publications/Law2007ANTandMaterialSemiotics.pdf}Google Scholar accessed August 2013.

⁵⁷ Harvey, David, Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), pp. 260–261Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Bloomfield, Brian P. and Vurdubakis, Theo. ‘The outer limits: Monsters, actor networks and the writing of displacement’, Organization, 6:4 (1999), p. 626CrossRefGoogle Scholar, emphasis in original.

⁵⁹ Mol and Law, ‘Regions, networks and fluids’, p. 660.

⁶⁰ Ibid., p. 652.

⁶¹ Ibid., p. 661.

⁶² Ibid., p. 662.

⁶³ Law, ‘Objects and spaces’, p. 102.

⁶⁴ Suteanu, Cristian, ‘Complexity, science and the public: the geography of a new interpretation’, Theory, Culture & Society, 22:5 (2005), p. 130CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶⁶ Microsoft, Understanding Anti-Malware Technologies (White Paper, 2007); McAfee, New Gateway Anti-Malware Technology Sets the Bar for Web Threat Protection (White Paper, 2013).

⁶⁷ Firewalls, another very common defensive mechanism, work similarly but will not be discussed in more detail here.

⁶⁸ Microsoft, ‘Microsoft Security Intelligence Report Website’, available at: {www.microsoft.com/security/sir/default.aspx}; Symantec, ‘Annual Threat Report’, available at:{www.symantec.com/threatreport}; Sophos, ‘Security Threat Report’, available at:{www.sophos.com/en-us/security-news-trends/reports/security-threat-report.aspx}, etc.

⁶⁹ Labs, Panda, ‘Quarterly Report’, available at: {press.pandasecurity.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Quarterly-Report-PandaLabs-April-June-2012.pdf}Google Scholar.

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⁷¹ The Google Transparency Report now also includes sources of malware, available at: {blogspot.ch/2013/06/transparency-report-making-web-safer.html}.

⁷² Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit, ‘How a remote town in Romania has become cybercrime central’, Wired (2011), available at: {www.wired.com/magazine/2011/01/ff_hackerville_romania/}Google Scholar accessed 31 January 2011; Kshetri, Nir, ‘Cybercrimes in the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe: Current status and key drivers’, Crime, Law and Social Change, 60:1 (2013), pp. 39–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁴ Mol and Law, ‘Regions, networks and fluids’, p. 649.

⁷⁵ That means all the computers infected with Code Red tried to contact the White House website at the same time, overloading the machines and making it become unavailable. See Dolak, John C., ‘The Code Red worm’, Security Essentials, 1:2 (SANS Institute, 2001)Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Tiirmaa-Klaar, Heli et al., Botnets, Springer Briefs in Cybersecurity (New York: Springer, 2013)Google Scholar.

⁷⁷ See, for example, the ISO 27000 series, available at: {www.27000.org} or the OECD Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks.

⁷⁸ European Union Agency for Network and Information Security, ‘Inventory of Risk Management / Risk Assessment Methods and Tools’, available at: {www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/risk-management/current risk/risk-management-inventory}.

⁷⁹ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, ‘Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime’ (Vienna: UNODC, 2013) available at: { www.globalinitiative.net/wpfb-file/unodc-comprehensive-study-on-cybercrime-pdf/}.

⁸⁰ European Commission, Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union: An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace (Brussels: JOIN, 2013)Google Scholar; European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning measures to ensure a high common level of network and information security across the Union, 2013/0027 (COD).

⁸¹ See, for example, Schmitt, Michael N. (ed.), Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸² Parikka, ‘Ethologies of software art’, p. 125.

⁸³ Spafford, Eugene H., ‘The Internet worm: Crisis and aftermath’, Communications of the ACM, 32:6 (1989), pp. 678–687CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸⁷ Sommer, Peter and Brown, Ian, ‘Reducing systemic cyber security risk’, Report of the International Futures Project (Paris: OECD, 2011)Google Scholar; Robinson, Neil, Horvath, Veronica, Cave, Jonathan, Roosendaal, Arnold, and Klaver, Marieke, Data and Security Breaches and Cyber-Security Strategies in the EU and its International Counterparts (Strasbourg: Europa Parliament, Committee on Industry, 2013), p. 58Google Scholar.

⁸⁸ Law, ‘Objects and spaces’, p. 102.

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⁹¹ Symantec, ‘Security Response’, available at: {www.symantec.com/connect/blogs/w32stuxnet-dossier}.

⁹² See, for example, Langner, Ralph, ‘Stuxnet: Dissecting a cyberwarfare weapon’, Security & Privacy, IEEE, 9:3 (2011), pp. 49–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Chen, T. M., and Abu-Nimeh, S., ‘Lessons from Stuxnet’, Computer, 44:4 (2011), pp. 91–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁹⁵ Keiser, Gregg, ‘Why did Stuxnet worm spread’, Computerworld, available at: {www.computerworld.com/article/2516109/security0/why-did-stuxnet-worm-spread-.html}Google Scholar accessed 1 October 2014.

⁹⁶ KrebsonSecurity, ‘Experts warn of new windows shortcut flaw’, available at: {www.krebsonsecurity.com/2010/07/experts-warn-of-new-windows-shortcut-flaw}; ‘Microsoft to issue emergency patch for critical windows-bug’, available at: {www. krebsonsecurity.com/2010/07/microsoft-to-issue-emergency-patch-for-critical-windows-bug}.

⁹⁷ Wilders security, ‘Rootkit’, available at: {www.wilderssecurity.com/threads/rootkit-tmphider.276994/#post-1712134}.

⁹⁸ A Command and Control server (C&C server) is the centralised computer that issues commands to infected computers.

⁹⁹ Symantec, ‘W32.Stuxnet Dossier’, available at: {www.symantec.com/content/en/us/enterprise/media/security_response/whitepapers/w32_stuxnet_dossier.pdf}; See also Ginter, Andrew, ‘The Stuxnet worm and options for remediation’, Industrial Ethernet Book Issue, 61:35 (2010)Google Scholar, available at: {www.iebmedia.com/index.php?id=7409&parentid=63&themeid=255&hft=61&showdetail=true&bb=1}.

¹⁰⁰ Langner, ‘Stuxnet logbook sep 16 2010 1200 hoursmesz’, available at: {www.langner.com/en/2010/09/16/stuxnet-logbook-sep-16-2010-1200-hours-mesz/}.

¹⁰¹ Schneier, Bruce, ‘Stuxnet’, Schneier on Security, available at: {www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2010/10/stuxnet.html}Google Scholar.

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¹⁰³ Albright, David, Brannan, Paul, and Walrond, Christina, ‘Did Stuxnet take out 1,000 centrifuges at the Natanz Enrichment Plant? Preliminary assessment’, Institute for Science and International Security, available at: {www.isis-online.org/isis-reports/detail/did-stuxnet-take-out-1000-centrifuges-at-the-natanz-enrichment-plant/}Google Scholar accessed 22 December 2014.

¹⁰⁴ Markoff, John and Sanger, David E., ‘In a computer worm, a possible Biblical clue’, New York Times, available at: {www.nytimes.com/2010/09/30/world/middleeast/30worm.html?_r=0}Google Scholar 30 October 2010.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid.

¹⁰⁶ Rivva, ‘Computer-virus Stuxnet trifft deutsche industrie’, Süddeutsche Zeitung, available at: {www.sueddeutsche.de/digital/gefaehrliches-schadprogramm-computer-virus-stuxnet-trifft-deutsche-industrie-1.1007379} accessed 2 October 2014.

¹⁰⁷ Zeiter, Kim, ‘Stuxnet timeline shows correlation among events’, Wired, available at: {www.wired.com/2011/07/stuxnet-timeline/}Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ Car, Jeffrey, ‘Dragons, tigers, pearls, and yellowcake: 4 Stuxnet targeting scenarios’, Forbes, available at: {www.forbes.com/sites/firewall/2010/11/22/dragons-tigers-pearls-and-yellowcake-4-stuxnet-targeting-scenarios/}Google Scholar accessed 22 November 2014; Jeffrey Car, ‘Stuxnet's Finnish-Chinese connection’, Forbes, available at: {www.forbes.com/sites/firewall/2010/12/14/stuxnets-finnish-chinese-connection/} accessed 14 December 2014.

¹⁰⁹ Broad, William J., Markoff, John, and Sanger, David E., ‘Israeli test on worm called crucial in Iran nuclear delay’, New York Times, available at: {www.nytimes.com/2011/01/16/world/middleeast/16stuxnet.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0}Google Scholar accessed 16 January 2014.

¹¹⁰ Melmann, Yossi, ‘Israel finally moving to define national policy on Iran’, Haaretz, available at: {www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/israel-finally-moving-to-define-national-policy-on-iran-1.348250}Google Scholar accessed 10 March 2014.

¹¹¹ Sanger, ‘Obama order sped up wave of cyberattacks against Iran’.

¹¹² Perlroth, Nicole, ‘Researchers find clues in malware’, New York Times, available at: {www.nytimes.com/2012/05/31/technology/researchers-link-flame-virus-to-stuxnet-and-duqu.html}Google Scholar accessed 30 May 2014.

¹¹³ Appelbaum, Jacob and Poitras, Laura, ‘Edward Snowden interview: the NSA and its willing helpers’, Spiegel, available at: {www.spiegel.de/international/world/interview-with-whistleblower-edward-snowden-on-global-spying-a-910006.html}Google Scholar accessed 9 July 2013.

¹¹⁴ An interesting (and underexplored) question is why this specific version (Stuxnet as a targeted attack against Iran, launched by the US and Israel) became the truth way before The New York Times article provided more ‘evidence’, even though many alternative explanations, from highly-respected security specialists, existed.

¹¹⁵ Clarke, Richard, Cyber War: The Next Threat to National Security and What to Do About It (New York: Ecco, 2010)Google Scholar.

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