¹ Hereafter referred to as the Commission.

² See, for example, Birchfield, Vicki L. and Duffield, John S. (eds), Toward a Common European Union Energy Policy: Problems, Progress and Prospects (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011)Google Scholar; Szulecki, Kacper, Fischer, Severin, Gullberg, Anne T., and Sartor, Oliver, ‘Shaping the “Energy Union”: Between national positions and governance innovation in EU energy and climate policy’, Climate Policy, 16:5 (2016), pp. 548–567 Google Scholar.

³ Lavenex, Sandra, ‘EU external governance in “wider Europe”’, Journal of European Public Policy, 11:4 (2004), pp. 692–693 Google Scholar; Radoman, Jelena, ‘Securitization of energy as a prelude to energy security dilemma’, Western Balkans Security Observer, 4 (2007), pp. 36–44 Google Scholar; Youngs, Richard, Energy Security: Europe’s New Foreign Policy Challenge (London: Routledge 2009), p. 41 Google Scholar; Butler, Eamonn, ‘The geopolitics of merger and acquisition in the Central European energy market’, Geopolitics, 16:3 (2011), pp. 626–654 Google Scholar.

⁴ A core claim of securitisation theory, which we follow in this article, is that ‘security’ has no fixed or objective meaning. Instead it is socially constructed.

⁵ Natorski, Michal and Herranz-Surrallés, Anna, ‘Securitizing moves to nowhere? The framing of the European Union energy policy’, Journal of Contemporary Research, 4:2 (2008), pp. 71–89 Google Scholar; McGowan, Francis, ‘Putting energy insecurity into historical context: European responses to the energy crises of the 1970s and 2000s’, Geopolitics, 16:3 (2011), pp. 486–511 Google Scholar.

⁶ Emil Kirchner and Can Berk anticipate greater cooperation, integration, and a common EU energy policy, driven by such energy security concerns. See ‘European energy security co-operation: Between amity and enmity’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 48:4 (2010), pp. 859–880 Google Scholar.

⁷ Pami Aalto and Dicle Korkmaz Temel are sceptical about the potential for substantial integration because of ‘a lack of shared beliefs and patterns of calculation’. It is these beliefs that we interrogate. See ‘European energy security: Natural gas and the integration process’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 52:4 (2014), pp. 758–774 (p. 771)Google Scholar. Tomas Maltby also highlights how security concerns are contested within member states, leading to inconsistent preferences on energy policy integration. See ‘Between amity, enmity and Europeanisation: EU energy security policy and the example of Bulgaria’s Russian energy dependence’, Europe-Asia Studies, 67:5 (2015), pp. 809–830 Google Scholar.

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⁹ Buzan, Barry, Wæver, Ole, and De Wilde, Jaap, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998), p. 25 Google Scholar.

¹⁰ Ibid., p. 24.

¹¹ For a recent summary, see Balzacq, Thierry, Léonard, Sarah, and Ruzicka, Jan, ‘“Securitization’ revisited: Theory and cases’, International Relations (Early Online) (2015)Google Scholar.

¹² Natorski, and Herranz-Surrallés, , ‘Securitizing moves to nowhere?’Google Scholar; McGowan, , ‘Putting energy insecurity into historical context’Google Scholar.

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¹⁷ Browning, Christopher S. and MacDonald, Matt, ‘The future of critical security studies: Ethics and the politics of security’, European Journal of International Relations, 19:2 (2013), pp. 235–255 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bridges, Gavin, ‘Energy (in)security: World-making in an age of scarcity’, The Geographical Journal, 181:4 (2015), pp. 328–339 Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Felix Ciută also identifies a third logic of ‘total’ or ‘banal’ security in which energy security potentially means the security of ‘everything’, ‘everywhere’, and ‘against everything’ that is an important debate that is beyond the scope of this article. See ‘Conceptual notes on energy security: Total or banal security?’, Security Dialogue, 41:2 (2010), pp. 123–144 (p. 135)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Ibid., p. 132.

²⁰ Bigo, Didier, ‘Security and immigration: Toward a critique of the governmentality of unease’, Alternatives: Global, Local Political, 27 (supplement) (2002), pp. 63–92 Google Scholar; Van Munster, Rens, Securitizing Immigration: The Politics of Risk in the EU (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)Google Scholar.

²¹ For an explanation of the philosophical-sociological distinction that has come to typify securitisation studies, see Balzacq, Thierry, ‘A theory of securitisation: Origins, core assumptions, and variants’, in Thierry Balzacq (ed.), Securitization Theory: How Security Problems Emerge and Dissolve (London: Routledge, 2010), pp. 18–28 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²² Corry, , ‘Securitisation and “riskification”’, p. 248 Google Scholar.

²³ See also Stoddard, Edward, ‘A common vision of energy risk? Energy securitisation and company perceptions of risk in the EU’, Journal of Contemporary European Research, 8:3 (2012), pp. 340–366 Google Scholar.

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²⁸ Balzacq, , ‘A theory of securitisation’, pp. 11–15 Google Scholar; Balzacq, Thierry ‘Enquiries into methods: a new framework for securitization analysis’, in Balzacq (ed.), Securitization Theory, pp. 36–37 Google Scholar. Context in this sense is external to the process of securitisation, in contrast to the thick contextualist approach set out by Felix Ciută, which focuses on contextualised meanings of security. See ‘Security and the problem of context: a hermeneutical critique of securitisation theory’, Review of International Studies, 35:2 (2009), pp. 301–326 Google Scholar.

²⁹ Scarse, Ivan and MacKerron, Gordon, ‘Lock-in’, in Ivan Scarse and Gordon MacKerron (eds), Energy for the Future: A New Agenda (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)Google Scholar.

³⁰ Major changes are not impossible: the energy systems of the UK and Poland have undergone important changes in recent decades, and several advanced economies are currently attempting a transition to lower-carbon energy systems, most notably Germany. The core point is that such changes are difficult, expensive, and time-consuming. For more on energy transitions, see Smil, Vaclav, Energy Transitions: History, Requirements, Prospects (Santa Barbara, CA: Prager, 2010)Google Scholar.

³¹ Kuzemko, Caroline, Keating, Michael F., and Goldthau, Andreas, The Global Energy Challenge: Environment, Development and Security (London: Palgrave, 2016), p. 58 Google Scholar. See also Belyi, Andrei V. and Talus, Kim (eds), States and Markets in Hydrocarbon Sectors (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)Google Scholar.

³² Bremmer, Ian and Johnston, Robert, ‘The rise and fall of resource nationalism’, Survival, 51:2 (2009), pp. 149–158 Google Scholar; McGowan, Francis, ‘Can the European Union’s market liberalism ensure energy security in a time of “economic nationalism”?’, Journal of Contemporary European Research, 4:2 (2008), pp. 90–106 Google Scholar.

³³ Ostrowski, Wojciech, ‘State capitalism and the politics of resources’, in Belyi and Talus (eds), States and Markets in Hydrocarbon Sectors, pp. 83–102 Google Scholar.

³⁴ Correljé, Aad F. and van der Linde, Coby, ‘Energy supply security and geopolitics: a European perspective’, Energy Policy, 34:5 (2006), pp. 532–543 Google Scholar. Many have pointed to the role that states have come to play in national and global energy governance. See Dubash, Navorz K. and Florini, Ann, ‘Mapping global energy governance’, Global Policy, 2:s1 (2011), pp. 6–18 Google Scholar.

³⁵ To be clear, these modes of energy governance are ideal types. They nonetheless represent two extremes on the full spectrum of political-economic conditions in the various EU Member States, even if certain systems may be marked by characteristics of both a market-led and state-led system.

³⁶ Governments may maintain part ownership of particular market participants under this system, but will usually not be the majority shareholder and will not direct the actions of the company in question.

³⁷ The Copenhagen School themselves make fundamentally the same point: ‘Whereas economic nationalists have no problem invoking economic security in state terms, liberals are (or should be) constrained from doing so by their commitment to efficiency and thus to openness and competition. In principle, this commitment should exclude from securitization a great range of things that might count as serious economic or political issues’ (Buzan et al., Security, p. 105).

³⁸ MacDonald, Matt, ‘Securitization and the construction of security’, European Journal of International Relations, 14:4 (2008), pp. 563–587 Google Scholar.

³⁹ Polish documents are official government translations into English. All national security strategies, energy policies, and relevant regulator documents from 2000–16 were analysed, and the Factiva database was used to trace the discourse of key energy actors during this time period.

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⁴² Commission, ‘Green Paper: Towards a European Strategy for the Security of Energy Supply’, COM(2000)769 (29 November 2000), pp. 2 Google Scholar, 46.

⁴³ Ibid., pp. 75–7.

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⁴⁷ Such deals usually involved state-owned or private importers negotiating deals with suppliers, supported by intergovernmental agreements between supplier and consumer states. See Estrada, Javier et al., Natural Gas in Europe: Markets, Organization and Politics (London: Pinter Publishers, 1988)Google Scholar.

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⁵⁰ Directive 98/30/EC; Directive 2003/55/EC.

⁵¹ Directive 2009/73/EC.

⁵² Regulation 994/2010.

⁵³ €2.3 billion between 2007–13. See European Court of Auditors, ‘Improving the Security of Energy Supply by Developing the Internal Energy Market: More Efforts Needed’, SR16/2015 (2015), p. 15 Google Scholar.

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⁶¹ Ibid., p. 76.

⁶² Ibid., p. 78.

⁶³ See, for instance, the reports of the Joint Energy Security of Supply (JESS) working group from this period.

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⁶⁵ Ibid., pp. 6, 44–62.

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¹⁵⁵ Adam Grzeszak cited in Wisniewski, Jaroslaw Google Scholar, ‘Towards a Common Understanding of Energy Security? An Analysis of Elite Discourses in the UK, Poland and Germany’ (PhD Thesis, King’s College London, 2014), p. 137.

¹⁵⁶ Directive 2009/73/EC.

¹⁵⁷ Further research is required to examine this claim in other Member States, and in particular to examine how the dynamics of securitisation and riskification may play out in systems that do not align so clearly with the state-led/market-led distinction we have utilised in this article. This could also explore aspects of the process of constructing energy security that we have not been able to examine in this article, such as the role of practices in contributing to the process of securitisation/riskification.

¹⁵⁸ Commission, European Energy Security Strategy, COM(2014)330, Brussels: European Commission (28 May 2014), available at: {http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52014DC0330&qid=1407855611566} accessed 11 April 2017.