Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-09T05:31:52.190Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Urbanization, Economic Change, and Dental Health in Roman and Medieval Britain

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 March 2017

Rebecca C. Griffin
Rebecca C. Griffin*
Affiliation:
Discipline of Anatomy and Histology, University of Sydney, Australia
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In modern populations, inequalities in oral health have been observed between urban and rural communities, but to date the impact of the place of residence on oral health in archaeological populations has received only limited attention. This meta-study analyses dental palaeopathological data to examine the relationship between place of residence and oral health in Roman, early medieval, and late medieval Britain. Published data on ante-mortem tooth loss, calculus, caries, dental abscesses, and periodontal disease were analysed from cemeteries in urban and rural locations from each period. The results indicate that the place of residence influenced oral health in Roman and late medieval times, with urban populations enjoying better oral health than rural populations in Roman Britain, but poorer oral health in the late Middle Ages. These findings may reflect changes in the nature of urban settlements and in their relationship with their rural hinterlands over time.

L’étude de la santé bucco-dentaire des populations d’époque moderne a révélé des inégalités entre les populations urbaines et rurales mais jusqu’à présent l'influence du milieu sur la santé dentaire de populations provenant de contextes archéologiques n'a reçu que peu d'attention. L’étude méta-analytique présentée ici se base sur des données paléo-pathologiques et a pour but de déterminer les rapports entre le lieu de résidence et la santé bucco-dentaire en Grande-Bretagne au cours de l’époque romaine et pendent le haut et le bas Moyen âge. Cette étude consiste en un examen diachronique des données publiées concernant la perte des dents avant décès, le tartre, les caries, les abcès dentaires et les maladies parodontales relevés dans les nécropoles et cimetières en milieux urbains et ruraux. Il en ressort que le lieu de résidence a eu un effet sur la santé bucco-dentaire à l’époque romaine ainsi que pendant le Moyen âge : la santé dentaire des populations urbaines romaines était meilleure que celle des communautés rurales contemporaines ; par contre ces populations urbaines souffraient plus au bas Moyen âge. Ces résultats reflètent probablement des transformations plus profondes dans la nature de l'habitat urbain et dans les relations que les villes entretenaient avec leur arrière-pays rural au cours des âges. Translation by Madeleine Hummler

Studien von modernen Bevölkerungen haben gezeigt, dass es Ungleichheiten in der Zahngesundheit von städtischen und ländlichen Gesellschaften gibt, aber der Einfluss des Wohnortes auf die Zahngesundheit von archäologisch dokumentierten Gemeinschaften hat bisher wenig Aufmerksamkeit erregt. In der vorgelegten Meta-Analyse werden paläopathologische Angaben ausgewertet, um die Beziehungen zwischen Wohnort und Zahngesundheit im römischen, früh- und spätmittelalterlichen Großbritannien zu untersuchen. Die veröffentlichten Daten, die prämortaler Zahnausfall, Zahnstein, Karies, Abszesse und parodontale Krankheiten dokumentieren, wurden von Gräberfeldern und Friedhöfen in städtischen und ländlichen Bereichen in den verschiedenen Zeitabschnitten ausgewertet. Es ergibt sich, dass der Wohnort die Zahngesundheit in der Römerzeit und im Spätmittelalter tatsächlich beeinflusste: Die römischen Stadtbewohner hatten bessere Zähne als ihre ländlichen Zeitgenossen, aber im Spätmittelalter war die Zahngesundheit in den Städten schlechter als auf dem Lande. Diese Ergebnisse weisen wahrscheinlich auf zeitliche Entwicklungen im Städtewesen und in dessen Beziehungen zu seinem ländlichen Hinterland hin. Translation by Madeleine Hummler

Keywords

oral healthpalaeopathologyurbanruraleconomyBritainsanté bucco-dentairepaléo-pathologiemilieu urbainmilieu ruraléconomieGrande-BretagneZahngesundheitPaläopathologieStadtbereichLandumgebungWirtschaftGroßbritannien
Type
Articles
Information
European Journal of Archaeology , Volume 20 , Issue 2 , May 2017 , pp. 346 - 367
Copyright
Copyright © European Association of Archaeologists 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, S. & Birkett, A. 1993. The Human Skeletal Remains from Burgh Castle. In: Darling, M. & Gurney, D., eds. Caister-on-Sea Excavations by Charles Green 1951–1955 (East Anglian Archaeology Report 60). Gressenhall: Norfolk Museums Service, pp. 256–60.Google Scholar
Anderson, T. 2004a. Dental Treatment in Anglo-Saxon England. British Dental Journal, 197: 273–74.Google Scholar
Anderson, T. 2004b. Dental Treatment in Medieval England. British Dental Journal, 197: 419–25.Google Scholar
Arce, A. 2007. Health in Southern and Eastern England (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Durham).Google Scholar
Astill, G. 1983. Economic Change in Later Medieval England: An Archaeological Review. In: Aston, T., Coss, P., Dyer, C. Thirsk, & J., eds. Social Relations and Ideas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 226–30.Google Scholar
Belcastro, G., Rastelli, E., Mariotti, V., Consiglio, C., Facchini, F. & Bonfiglioli, B. 2007. Continuity or Discontinuity of the Life-style in Central Italy during the Roman Imperial Age–Early Middle Ages Transition: Diet, Health and Behavior. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 132: 381–94.Google Scholar
Blair, J. 2000. Small Towns 600–1270. In: Palliser, D.M., ed. The Cambridge Urban History of Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 245–70.Google Scholar
Boddington, A. 1996. Raunds Furnells: The Anglo-Saxon Church and Churchyard. London: English Heritage.Google Scholar
Bonfiglioli, B., Brasili, P. & Belcastro, M. 2003. Dento-alveolar Lesions and Nutritional Habits of a Roman Imperial Age Population (1st–4th c. AD): Quadrella (Molise, Italy). Homo, 54: 36–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonsall, L. 2013. Variations in the Health Status of Urban Populations in Roman Britain: A Comparison of Skeletal Samples from Major and Minor Towns (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh).Google Scholar
Bonsall, L. & Pickard, C. 2015. Stable Isotope and Dental Pathology Evidence for Diet in Late Roman Winchester, England. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2:128–40.Google Scholar
Boyle, A, Dodd, A, Miles, D. & Mudd, A. 1995. Two Oxfordshire Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries: Berinsfield and Didcot. Oxford: Oxford Archaeological Unit.Google Scholar
Boylston, A. & Roberts, C. 2004. The Roman Inhumations. In: Dawson, M., ed. Archaeology in the Bedford Region (British Archaeological Reports British Series 373, Bedfordshire Archaeological Monograph 4). Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 309–36.Google Scholar
Boylston, A., Wiggins, R. & Roberts, C. 1998. Human Skeletal Remains. In: Drinkhall, G. & Foreman, M., eds. The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Castledyke South, Barton-on-Humber (Sheffield Excavation Reports 6). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, pp. 221–36.Google Scholar
Brickley, M. 2004. Compiling a Skeletal Inventory. In: Brickley, M. & McKinley, J.L., eds. Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. Reading: Institute of Field Archaeologists, pp. 6–7.Google Scholar
Britnell, R. 2000. The Economy of British Towns 600–1300. In: Palliser, D.M., ed. The Cambridge Urban History of Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, A. ed. 1995. Roman Small Towns in Eastern England and Beyond. Oxford: Oxbow Books.Google Scholar
Cardwell, P. 1995. Excavation of the Hospital of St Giles by Brompton Bridge, North Yorkshire. Archaeological Journal, 152: 109–245.Google Scholar
Chambers, R. 1987. The Late- and Sub-Roman Cemetery at Queenford Farm, Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxon. Oxoniensia, 52: 35–69.Google Scholar
Cheung, C., Schroeder, H. & Hedges, R. 2012. Diet, Social Differentiation and Cultural Change in Roman Britain: New Isotopic Evidence from Gloucestershire. Archaeological and Anthropological Science, 4: 61–73.Google Scholar
Clarke, C. 1998. Excavations to the South of Chignall Roman Villa, Essex, 1977–81. Chelmsford: Archaeology Section, Essex County Council.Google Scholar
Clarke, G. 1979. The Roman Cemetery at Lankhills. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Cramp, R. 2006. Wearmouth and Jarrow Monastic Sites, Volume 2. Swindon: English Heritage.Google Scholar
Crummy, N., Crummy, P. & Crossan, C. 1993. Excavations of Roman and Later Cemeteries, Churches and Monastic Sites in Colchester, 1971–88. Colchester: Colchester Archaeological Trust.Google Scholar
Cullen, K., Holbrook, N., Watts, M., Caffell, A. & Holst, M. 2005. A Post-Roman Cemetery at Hewlett Packard, Filton, South Gloucestershire: Excavations in 2005. Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Report, 4: 51–96.Google Scholar
Cummings, C. 2009. Meat Consumption in Roman Britain: The Evidence from Stable Isotopes. In: Driessen, M., Heeren, S., Hendriks, J., Kemmers, F. & Visser, R., eds. TRAC 2008: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Amsterdam 2008. Oxford: Oxbow Books, pp. 73–83.Google Scholar
Davies, S. 1985. The Excavation of an Anglo-Saxon Cemetery (and some Prehistoric Pits) at Charlton Plantation, near Downton. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 79: 109–54.Google Scholar
Denston, C. & Duhig, C. 1994. Discussion: The Human Remains. In: Dawson, M., ed. A Late Roman Cemetery at Bletsoe (Bedfordshire Archaeological Monograph 1). Bedford: Bedfordshire County Council Planning Department, pp. 30–33.Google Scholar
DeWitte, S. 2012. Sex Differences in Periodontal Disease in Catastrophic and Attritional Assemblages from Medieval London. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149: 405–16.Google Scholar
DeWitte, S., Boulware, J. & Redfern, R. 2013. Medieval Monastic Mortality: Hazard Analysis of Mortality Differences between Monastic and Nonmonastic Cemeteries in England. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 152: 322–32.Google Scholar
Dias, G. & Tayles, N. 1997. ‘Abscess Cavity’: A Misnomer. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 7: 548–54.Google Scholar
Doherty, M.A., Blinkhorn, A.S. & Vane, E.S. 2010. Oral Health in the Pacific Islands. International Dental Journal, 60: 122–28.Google Scholar
Dyer, C. 1998. Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages: Social Change in England c. 1200–1520. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Eckardt, H. ed. 2010. Roman Diasporas: Archaeological Approaches to Mobility and Diversity in the Roman Empire (Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 78). Portsmouth (RI): Journal of Roman Archaeology.Google Scholar
Eckardt, H., Muldner, G. & Lewis, M. 2014. People on the Move in Roman Britain. World Archaeology, 46: 534–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ettinger, R. 2007. Rural Dentistry: Lessons from Other Countries. Special Care in Dentistry, 27: 219–21.Google Scholar
Farwell, D. & Molleson, T. 1993. Poundbury, Vol. 2: The Cemeteries. Dorchester: Friary Press.Google Scholar
Gonçalves, P., Griffiths, G. & Rawlinson, A. 2015. A Study of the Periodontal State of a Late Medieval United Kingdom Population. Archives of Oral Biology, 60:1797–1801.Google Scholar
Gower, G.C. 1971. A General Coefficient of Similarity and some of its Properties. Biometrics, 27: 857–71.Google Scholar
Groves, S. 2011. Social and Biological Status in the Bowl Hole Early Medieval Burial Ground, Bamburgh, Northumberland. In: Petts, D. & Turner, S., eds. Early Medieval Northumbria. Turnhout: Brepols, pp. 241–66.Google Scholar
Hall, R. & Whyman, M. 1996. Settlement and Monasticism at Ripon, North Yorkshire, from the 7th to the 11th Centuries AD . Medieval Archaeology, 40:62–150.Google Scholar
Hawkes, S. 2003. The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Worthy Park, Kingsworthy, near Winchester, Hampshire. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology.Google Scholar
Hildebolt, C. & Molnar, S. 1991. Measurement and Description of Periodontal Disease in Anthropological Studies. In: Kelley, M. & Larsen, C., eds. Advances in Dental Anthropology. New York: Wiley Liss. pp. 225–40.Google Scholar
Hillson, S. 1996. Dental Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hinton, D. 2000. The Large Towns 600–1300. In: Palliser, D.M., ed. The Cambridge Urban History of Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 217–44.Google Scholar
Jackson, B. 2013. Nutritional Health Status and Urban Food Economies: The View from Roman Britain (unpublished MA dissertation, UCLA).Google Scholar
Keal, L. 2012. Osteological and Funerary Analysis of the Human Remains. In: Savage, R. & Sleap, J., eds. Former Talbot Inn, 16, High Street, Caistor, Lincolnshire: Scheme of Archaeological Monitoring and Recording. Lincoln: Pre-Construct Archaeological Services, Appendix 4.Google Scholar
Kermode, J. 2000. The Greater Towns 1300–1540. In: Palliser, D.M., ed. The Cambridge Urban History of Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 441–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Killgrove, K. & Tykot, R. 2013. Food for Rome: A Stable Isotope Investigation of Diet in the Imperial Period (1st–3rd Centuries AD). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 31: 28–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knocker, G. 1967. Excavations at Red Castle, Thetford. Norfolk Archaeology, 34: 155–86.Google Scholar
Langthorne, J. 2010. Human Bone Assessment. In: Killock, D., ed. An Assessment of an Archaeological Excavation at 28–30 Trinity Street, London SE1, London Borough of Southwark. London: Pre-Construct Archaeology, pp. 194–201.Google Scholar
Larsen, C., Shavit, R. & Griffin, M. 1991. Dental Caries Evidence for Dietary Change: An Archaeological Context. In: Kelley, M. & Larsen, C., eds. Advances in Dental Anthropology. New York: Wiley-Liss, pp. 179–202.Google Scholar
Leach, P. 1982. Ilchester. Vol. 1, Excavations, 1974–1975. Bristol: Western Archaeological Trust.Google Scholar
Lieverse, A. 1999. Diet and the Aetiology of Dental Calculus. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 9: 219–32.Google Scholar
Lightfoot, E., Slaus, M. & O'Connell, T.C. 2012. Changing Cultures, Changing Cuisines: Cultural Transitions and Dietary Change in Iron Age, Roman and Early Medieval Croatia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 148: 543–56.Google Scholar
Lucas, G. 2001. Excavations at Vicar's Farm, West Cambridge (Cambridge Archaeological Unit, Report 425). Cambridge: Cambridge Archaeological Unit.Google Scholar
Malim, T. & Hines, J. 1998. The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Edix Hill (Barrington A), Cambridgeshire (Research Report 112). York: Council for British Archaeology.Google Scholar
Manzi, G., Salvadei, L., Vienna, A. & Passarello, P. 1999. Discontinuity of Life Conditions at the Transition from the Roman Imperial Age to the Early Middle Ages: Example from Central Italy Evaluated by Pathological Dento-alveolar Lesions. American Journal of Human Biology, 11: 327–41.Google Scholar
Matthews, C. 1981. A Romano-British Inhumation Cemetery at Dunstable, Bedfordshire. Archaeological Journal, 15: 1–73.Google Scholar
Mays, S. 1989. The Anglo-Saxon Human Bone Report from School Street, Ipswich, Suffolk. English Heritage Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 115/89.Google Scholar
Mays, S. & Beavan, N. 2012. An Investigation of Diet in Early Anglo-Saxon England Using Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Analysis of Human Bone Collagen. Journal of Archaeological Science, 39: 867–74.Google Scholar
Mays, S., Brickley, M. & Dodwell, N. 2004. Human Bones from Archaeological Sites: Guidelines for Producing Assessment Documents and Analytical Reports. Swindon: English Heritage.Google Scholar
McGavin, N. 1980. A Roman Cemetery and Trackway at Stanton Harcourt. Oxoniensia, 45: 112–23.Google Scholar
McKinley, J. 2009. Human Bone. In: Dinwiddy, K.E., ed. A Late Roman Cemetery at Little Keep, Dorchester, Dorset. Salisbury: Wessex Archaeology, pp. 11–35.Google Scholar
McWhirr, A., Viner, A. & Wells, C. 1982. Romano-British Cemeteries at Cirencester. Cirencester: Cirencester Excavation Committee, Corinium Museum.Google Scholar
Moore, W. & Corbett, M. 1973. The Distribution of Dental Caries in Ancient British Populations: II. Iron Age, Romano-British and Medieval Periods. Caries Research, 7: 139–72.Google Scholar
Moynihan, P. 2005. The Role of Diet and Nutrition in the Etiology and Prevention of Oral Diseases. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 83: 694–99.Google Scholar
Müldner, G. & Richards, M. 2007a. Diet and Diversity at Later Medieval Fishergate: The Isotopic Evidence. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 134: 162–74.Google Scholar
Müldner, G. & Richards, M. 2007b. Stable Isotope Evidence for 1500 Years of Human Diet at the City of York, UK. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 133: 682–97.Google Scholar
Ogunbobdede, E., Kida, I., Madjapa, H., Amedari, M., Ehizele, A., Mutave, R., Sodipo, B., Temilola, S. & Okoye, L. 2015. Oral Health Inequalities between Rural and Urban Populations of the African and Middle East Region. Advances in Dental Research, 27: 18–25.Google Scholar
O'Sullivan, E., Williams, S., Cape, J., Wakefield, R. & Curzon, M. 1993. Prevalence and Site Characteristics of Dental Caries in Primary Molar Teeth from Prehistoric Times to the 18th Century in England. Caries Research, 27: 146–53.Google Scholar
Palliser, D.M. 2000. The Cambridge Urban History of Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pechenkina, E. & Delgado, M. 2006. Dimensions of Health and Social Structure in the Early Intermediate Period Cemetery at Villa El Salvador, Peru. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 131: 218–35.Google Scholar
Perring, D. 1991. Spatial Organisation and Social Change in Roman Towns. In: Rich, J. & Wallace-Hadrill, A., eds. City and Country in the Ancient World. London & New York: Routledge, pp. 273–93.Google Scholar
Perring, D. 2002. Town and Country in England: Frameworks for Archaeological Research. York: Council for British Archaeology.Google Scholar
Pitts, M. & Griffin, R. 2012. Exploring Health and Social Well-being in Late Roman Britain: An Intercemetery Approach. American Journal of Archaeology, 116: 253–76.Google Scholar
Poulton, R. 1989. Rescue Excavations on an Early Saxon Cemetery Site and a Later (probably Late Saxon) Execution Site at the Former Goblin Works, Ashstead, near Leatherhead. Sussex Archaeological Collections, 79: 67–97.Google Scholar
Proudfoot, E. 1996. Excavations at the Long Cist on the Hallow Hill, St Andrews, Fife, 1975–7. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 126: 387–454.Google Scholar
Redfern, R., DeWitte, S., Pearce, J., Hamlin, C. & Dinwiddy, K. 2015. Urban-Rural Differences in Roman Dorset, England: A Bioarchaeological Perspective on Roman Settlements. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 157: 107–20.Google Scholar
Redfern, R., Hamlin, C. & Athfield, N. 2010. Temporal Changes in Diet: A Stable Isotope Analysis of Late Iron Age and Roman Dorset, Britain. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37: 1149–60.Google Scholar
Richards, M., Hedges, R.E.M., Molleson, T. & Vogel, J. 1998. Stable Isotope Analysis Reveals Variations in Human Diet at the Poundbury Camp Cemetery Site. Journal of Archaeological Science, 25: 1247–52.Google Scholar
Roberts, C. & Cox, M. 2003. Health and Disease in Britain: From Prehistory to the Present Day. Stroud: Sutton Publishing.Google Scholar
Rogers, J. 1984. Skeletons from the Lay Cemetery at Taunton Priory. In: Leach, P., ed. The Archaeology of Taunton (Western Archaeological Trust Excavation Monograph 8). Bristol: Western Archaeological Trust, pp. 194–200.Google Scholar
Rogers, J. 1999. Burials: The Human Skeletons. In: Heighway, C. & Bryant, R., eds. The Golden Minster: The Anglo-Saxon Minster and Later Medieval Priory of St Oswald, Gloucester (CBA Research Report 117). York: Council for British Archaeology, pp. 229–46.Google Scholar
Shen, A., Zeng, X., Cheng, M., Tai, B., Huang, R. & Bernabe, E. 2015. Inequalities in Dental Caries among 12-year-old Chinese Children. Journal of Public Health Dentistry, 75: 210–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singh, A. & Purohit, B. 2013. Addressing Oral Health Disparities: Inequity in Access and Workforce Issues in a Developing Country. International Dental Journal, 63: 25–29.Google Scholar
Skillman, S., Doescher, M., Mouradian, W. & Brunson, D. 2010. The Challenge to Delivering Oral Health Services in Rural America. Journal of Public Health Dentistry, 70: S49–S57.Google Scholar
Slaus, M., Bedic, Z., Sikanjic, P., Vodanovic, M. & Kunic, A. 2011. Dental Health at the Transition from the Late Antique to the Early Medieval Period on Croatia's Eastern Adriatic Coast. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 21: 577–90.Google Scholar
Spalding, R., Sinclair, D. & Cox, A. 1996. Dry Bones: A Palaeopathological Study of Skeletal Remains from a Medieval Graveyard in Dundee. Scottish Medical Journal, 41: 56–59.Google Scholar
Stroud, G. 1993. Human Skeletal Material. In: Dallas, C., ed. Excavations in Thetford by B.K. Davison between 1964–1970. Norwich: Museums Service, Field Archaeology Division, Norfolk Archaeological Unit, pp. 168–76.Google Scholar
Stuart-Macadam, P. 1986. Health and Diseases in the Monks of Stratford Langthorne Abbey. Essex Journal, 21: 67–71.Google Scholar
van der Veen, M., Livarda, A. & Hill, A. 2008. New Plant Foods in Roman Britain: Dispersal and Social Access. Environmental Archaeology, 13: 11–36.Google Scholar
Vincent, S. & Mays, S. 2009. Whitby Abbey Headland. Osteological Analysis of Human Remains from Whitby, Whitby Abbey Headland Project: Southern Anglian Enclosure 1999–2000. Portsmouth: English Heritage.Google Scholar
Waldron, H. 1987. The Human Bones from Ulwell: English Heritage Ancient Monuments Laboratory Report 87/87, unpublished report.Google Scholar
Watt, M., Lunt, D. & Gilmour, W. 1997. Caries Prevalence in the Deciduous Dentition of a Mediaeval Population from the South-West of Scotland. Archives of Oral Biology, 42: 811–20.Google Scholar
Wells, C. 1976. The Human Burials. In: West, S. & Plouviez, J., eds. The Romano-British Site at Icklingham (East Anglian Archaeology Report 3). Ipswich: Suffolk County Planning Department, pp. 103–19.Google Scholar
Wells, C. 1996. Human Burials. In: Evison, V. & Hill, P., eds. Two Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries at Beckford, Hereford and Worcester (CBA Research Report 103). York: Council for British Archaeology, pp. 41–66.Google Scholar
Wessex Archaeology. 2003. New School Site, Boscombe Down, Wiltshire: Archaeological Excavation Assessment Report. Salisbury: Trust for Wessex Archaeology.Google Scholar
Whytehead, R. 1986. The Excavation of an Area within a Roman Cemetery at West Tenter Street, London E1. Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, 37: 123–24.Google Scholar
Wood, J.W., Milner, G.R., Harpending, H.C. & Weiss, K.M. 1992. The Osteological Paradox: Problems of Inferring Prehistoric Health from Skeletal Samples. Current Anthropology, 33: 343–70.Google Scholar