¹ Gellner, E., Nationalismus und Moderne (Rotbuch Verlag 1995) p. 56Google Scholar [English original: Gellner, E., Nations and Nationalism (Cornell University Press 1983)Google Scholar]; cf also Sandulli, A., Costruire lo Stato. La scienza del diritto amministrativo in Italia (1800-1945) Constructing the State. The Science of Administrative Law in Italy (Giuffrè Editore 2009)Google Scholar.

² Epictetus quoted after Koselleck, R., Vergangene Zukunft. Zur Semantik geschichtlicher Zeiten, Begriffsgeschichte und Sozialgeschichte (suhrkamp taschenbuch wissenschaft 2000) p. 107Google Scholar.

³ On the emergence of the field of community law in France see Bailleux, J., Penser l’Europe par le droit. L’invention du droit communautaire en France (Dalloz 2014)Google Scholar; in Germany Mangold, A.K., Gemeinschaftsrecht und deutsches Recht (Mohr Siebeck 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; in Italy Sandulli, A., ‘La scienza italiana del diritto pubblico e l’integrazione europea’, 15 Rivista italiana di diritto pubblico comunitario (2005) p. 837Google Scholar.

⁴ Vauchez, A., L’Union par le droit. L’invention d’un programme institutionnel pour l’Europe (Presses de Sciences Po 2013) p. 47 ffGoogle Scholar; cf also the revised English version: Vauchez, A., Brokering Europe. Euro-Lawyers and the Making of a Transnational Policy (Cambridge University Press 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵ See the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) of 18 April 1951 and the two Treaties of Rome, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) of 25 March 1957.

⁶ The classic texts on this subject were written in the United States: Stein, E., ‘Lawyers, Judges, and the Making of a Transnational Constitution’, 75 AJIL (1981) p. 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Weiler, J.H.H., ‘The Transformation of Europe’, 100 Yale Law Journal (1991) p. 2403CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁸ See Jakab, A., European Constitutional Language (Cambridge University Press 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ Cf ECJ 23 April 1986, Case C-294/83, Les Verts v Parliament, margin number 23.

¹⁰ The core text dates from 1962, Hallstein, W., ‘Die EWG - eine Rechtsgemeinschaft’, in T. Oppermann (ed.), Walter Hallstein Reden (Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt 1979) p. 341Google Scholar; on his role cf, for example, Mayer, F., ‘Europa als Rechtsgemeinschaft’, in G.F. Schuppert, I. Pernice and U. Haltern (eds.), Europarechtswissenschaft (Nomos 2005) p. 429, 430Google Scholar; Schorkopf, F., Der Europäische Weg. Grundlagen der Europäischen Union (Mohr Siebeck 2010) p. 116Google Scholar; Calliess, C., ‘Die Europäische Union als Rechtsgemeinschaft’, in C. Calliess, W. Kahl and K. Schmalenbach (eds.), Rechtsstaatlichkeit, Freiheit und soziale Rechte in der Europäischen Union (Duncker & Humblot 2014) p. 63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹² Hallstein, W., Die Europäische Gemeinschaft (Econ 1973) p. 33Google Scholar; cf also in French: Hallstein, W., L’Europe inachevée (R. Laffont 1970)Google Scholar; in English: Hallstein, W., Europe in the Making (Allen and Unwin 1972)Google Scholar.

¹³ Fighting the Versailles Treaty was a red thread for many political forces in the Weimar Republic, see Schmitt, Carl, Positionen und Begriffe im Kampf mit Weimar - Genf - Versailles 1923 – 1939, 3rd edn. (Duncker und Humblot 1994) p. 32-42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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¹⁷ References in Bundesverfassungsgericht 9 November 1999, Case 2 BvL 5/95, ECLI:DE:BVerfG:1999:ls19991109.2bvl000595, margin number 38; Bundesverfassungsgericht 16 January 2008, Case 2 BvR 2391/07, ECLI:DE:BVerfG:2008:rk20080116.2bvr239107, margin number 6.

¹⁸ Kirchhof, P., ‘Verfassungsnot!’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 12 July 2012Google Scholar; Seidel, M., ‘Europarechtsverstöße und Verfassungsbruch im Doppelpack’, 22 Europäische Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht (2011) p. 241Google Scholar. For a different opinion see Editorial Comments, ‘Debt and Democracy: “United States then, Europe now?”’, 49 CMLRev (2012) p. 1833Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Reuters US, ‘France’s Lagarde: EU rescues “violated” rules: report’ 18 December 2010Google Scholar, quoted after Asch, R.G., ‘“This realm of England is an empire”: Die Krise der EU, das Brexit-Referendum und die europäische Rechtsgemeinschaft’, 14 Zeitschrift für Staats- und Europawissenschaften (2016) p. 174, 179CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²¹ Cf, for example, Vauchez, supra n. 4, p. 198 ff.

²² Editorial Comments, ‘The Rule of Law in the Union, the Rule of Union Law and the Rule of Law by the Union: Three interrelated problems’, 53 CMLRev (2016) p. 597 ff, 604Google Scholar; setting the discourse today, see Brunnermeier, M.K., James, H. and Landau, J.-P., The Euro and the Battle of Ideas (Princeton University Press 2016)Google Scholar.

²³ For a seminal analysis see Jestaedt, M. et al., Das entgrenzte Gericht. Eine kritische Bilanz nach sechzig Jahren Bundesverfassungsgericht (suhrkamp 2011)Google Scholar; in comparative terms see Farahat, A., ‘Das Bundesverfassungsgericht’, in A. von Bogdandy, C. Grabenwarter and P. Huber (eds.), Handbuch Ius Publicum Europaeum: Verfassungsgerichtsbarkeit in Europa: Institutionen, Band 6 (C.F. Müller 2016)Google Scholar § 96, margin numbers 1 and 116; Kommers, D.P., ‘Can German Constitutionalism Serve as a Model for the United States?’, 58 Heidelberg Journal of International Law (1998) p. 787 at p. 788Google Scholar.

²⁴ For more detail on this see J.L. Requejo Pagés, ‘Das spanische Verfassungsgericht’, and L. Sólyom, ‘Das ungarische Verfassungsgericht’, in von Bogdandy, Grabenwarter and Huber, supra n. 23, § 106, margin number 106 ff; and § 107, margin number 41 ff.

²⁵ Schorkopf, F., ‘Gestaltung mit Recht – Prägekraft und Selbststand des Rechts in einer Rechtsgemeinschaft’, 136 Archiv des öffentlichen Rechts (2011) p. 323CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Asch, supra n. 19, p. 174 at p. 179.

²⁶ Joerges, C., ‘Integration through law and the crisis of law in Europe’s emergency’, in D. Chalmers, M. Jachtenfuchs and C. Joerges (eds.), The End of the Eurocrats’ Dream. Adjusting to European Diversity (Cambridge University Press 2016) p. 299Google Scholar.

²⁷ Tönnies, F., Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (Fues 1887) p. 19Google Scholar.

²⁸ Volkmann, U., ‘Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Europäischen Union: die Perspektive der Rechtsgemeinschaft’, in G. Kirchhof, H. Kube and R. Schmidt (eds.), Von Ursprung und Ziel der Europäischen Union (Mohr Siebeck 2016) p. 57, 58Google Scholar. For the French, see Vauchez, supra n. 4, p. 75, who quotes Paul Reuter, legal advisor to Robert Schuman and Jean Monnet, according to whom Community ‘did not mean anything legally, except for wedding and churches’.

²⁹ Cappelletti, M., Seccombe, M. and Weiler, J., ‘Integration Through Law: Europe and the American Federal Experience – A General Introduction’, in M. Cappelletti, M. Seccombe and J. Weiler (eds.), Integration Through Law. Europe and the American Federal Experience. Methods, Tools and Institutions, vol. 1 (De Gruyter 1986) p. 3Google Scholar.

³⁰ Augenstein, D. (ed.), ʻIntegration through law’ Revisited. The Making of the European Polity (Routledge 2012)Google Scholar; Dehousse, R., ‘From integration through law to governance’, in H. Koch et al. (eds.), Europe. The New Legal Realism (Djoef 2010) p. 153Google Scholar.

³¹ Cf, for example, references in supra n. 10.

³² On Hungary, European Commission for Democracy through Law, Opinion on the New Constitution of Hungary, Opinion No. 618/2011 of 20 June 2011, CDL-AD (2011) 016; on Poland, European Commission for Democracy through Law, Opinion on amendments to the Act of 25 June 2015 on the Constitutional Tribunal of Poland of 11-12 March 2016, CDL-AD(2016)001-e (2016); on Greece, J.Μ.D. Barroso, State of the Union Address, 11 September 2013, <www.europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-13-684_en.htm>, visited 23 October 2018.

³³ See the focus of the ground-breaking essay by Snyder, F., ‘The Effectiveness of European Community Law: Institutions, Processes, Tools and Techniques’, 56 Modern Law Review (1993) p. 19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁴ A later attempt to comprehend phenomena of international law using Hallstein’s conceptualization is found in Mosler, H., The International Society as a Legal Community (Recueils des cours de l’Académie de La Haye 1974) p. 1Google Scholar; for more on this see Kolb, R., Les cours généraux de droit international public de l’Académie de La Haye (Bruylant 2003) p. 16 at p. 541 ffGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Hallstein, supra n. 12, p. 348; Mayer, supra n. 10, p. 479; I. Pernice, ‘Begründung und Konsolidierung der Europäischen Gemeinschaft als Zwangsgemeinschaft’, in Zuleeg, supra n. 11, p. 56.

³⁶ Bitter, S., Die Sanktion im Recht der Europäischen Union (Springer 2011) p. 121 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ladeur, K.-H., ‘Diesseits der Rechtsgemeinschaft: Die ‘instituierende Gewalt’ der sozialen Regeln und die Grenzen der europäischen Integration’, in S. Kadelbach. and K. Günther (eds.), Europa: Krise, Umbruch und neue Ordnung (Nomos 2014) p. 139CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ Extensively, Ioannidis, M., ‘Europe’s new transformations: How the EU economic constitution changed during the Eurozone crisis’, 53 CMLRev (2016) p. 1237Google Scholar at p. 1264 ff. The fact that this does not always result in the desired obedience to the law is another matter.

³⁸ Mayer, supra n. 10, p. 432. It seems that the term ‘Community’ (Gemeinschaft) is due to Carl Friedrich Ophüls. See Ophüls, C.F., ‘Zwischen Völkerrecht und staatlichem Recht. Grundfragen des europäischen Rechts’, 4 Juristen-Jahrbuch (1963/64) p. 137 at p. 154Google Scholar; Hallstein, W., ‘Zu den Grundlagen und Verfassungsprinzipien der Europäischen Gemeinschaft’, in W. Hallstein/ H.-J. Schlochauer (eds.), Zur Integration Europas. Festschrift für Carl Friedrich Ophüls (Karlsruhe 1965) p. 1Google Scholar.

³⁹ van Middelaar, L., The Passage to Europe. How a Continent became a Union (Yale University Press 2013) p. 2 at p. 5Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Ipsen, H.P., Europäisches Gemeinschaftsrecht (Mohr Siebeck 1972) p. 197 ffGoogle Scholar; Majone, G., Regulating Europe (Routledge 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴¹ ECJ 23 April 1986, Case C-294/83, Les Verts v Parliament, 23.

⁴² Hallstein, supra n. 12, p. 105 ff; cf also M. Zuleeg, ‘Der unvollendete Bundesstaat: Vision oder Realität?’, in Zuleeg, supra n. 11, p. 97 at p. 99.

⁴³ van Middelaar, supra n. 20, p. 16, 18, 22 ff (preface to the German edition).

⁴⁴ Early writing on this problem, Dehousse, R., ‘Constitutional Reform in the European Community. Are there Alternatives to the Majority Avenue?’, in J. Hayward (ed.), The Crisis of Representation in Europe (Taylor & Francis 1995) p. 118Google Scholar at p. 124; Haltern, U., Europa und das Politische (Mohr Siebeck 2005) p. 44Google Scholar at p. 104 ff.

⁴⁵ Dawson, M. and de Witte, F., ‘From Balance to Conflict: A New Constitution for the EU’, 22 ELJ (2016) p. 204 at p. 207CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁶ Cf, for example, Guérot, U., ‘Einmal heißer Krieg – kalter Frieden und zurück’, Kursbuch 188 (2016) <kursbuch.online/ulrike-guerot-einmal-heisser-krieg-kalter-frieden-und-zurueck/>, visited 23 October 2018Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Setting the discourse today, Brunnermeier, James and Landau, supra n. 22.

⁴⁸ Hallstein, supra n. 12, p. 33.

⁴⁹ Cf ECJ 23 April 1986, Case C-294/83, Les Verts v Parliament, margin number 23; ECJ (Grand Chamber) 3 September 2008, Cases C-402/15 and C-415/05 P, Kadi and Al Barakaat International Foundation v Council and Commission, margin number 281; most recently, for example, ECJ (Grand Chamber) 6 October 2015, Case C-362/14, Schrems v Data Protection Commissioner, margin number 60: ‘according to which the European Union is a union based on the rule of law in which all acts of its institutions are subject to review of their compatibility with, in particular, the Treaties, general principles of law and fundamental rights’.

⁵⁰ This is not disputed even by ECJ-sceptical voices, cf especially Rasmussen, H., On Law and Policy in the European Court of Justice (Springer 1986)Google Scholar, as well as the Festschrift dedicated to him, Koch et al., supra n. 30.

⁵¹ Voßkuhle, A., The EU as a Community of European Law and Value (2018) p. 95 ffGoogle Scholar.

⁵² Cf, for example, The Guardian, ‘Crisis for Europe as trust hits record low’, 24 April 2013, as well as the president of the Federal Republic of Germany, J. Gauck, Speech on the occasion of the conferral of an honorary doctorate of Maastricht University on 7 February 2017. See also J. Peet, ‘Creaking at 60: The Future of the European Union’, The Economist, 25 March 2017, p. 3 ff; G. Nonnenmacher, ‘Europas letzte Chance?’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Woche, 24 March 2017, p. 17.

⁵³ Canor, I., ‘My brother’s keeper? Horizontal Solange: “An ever closer distrust among the peoples of Europe”’, 50 CMLRev (2013) p. 383Google Scholar. On the issue, see also Kohler, C., ‘Vertrauen und Kontrolle im europäischen Justizraum für Zivilsachen’, 19 Zeitschrift für europarechtliche Studien (2016) p. 135CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schwarz, M., Grundlinien der Anerkennung im Raum der Freiheit, der Sicherheit und des Rechts (Mohr Siebeck 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁴ ECJ (Full Court) 18 December 2014, Opinion 2/13, margin number 191; the Court emphasised the importance of that principle already in ECJ (Grand Chamber) 21 December 2011, Cases C-411/10 and C-493/10, N.S., margin number 83: ‘At issue here is the raison d’être of the European Union and the creation of an area of freedom, security and justice and, in particular, the Common European Asylum System, based on mutual confidence and a presumption of compliance, by other Member States, with European Union law and, in particular, fundamental rights’; see further earlier judgments relying on a practically unrestricted principle of mutual trust, ECJ 26 June 2007, Case C-305/05, Advocaten vor de Wereld; ECJ 29 January 2013, Case C-396/11, Radu; ECJ 26 February 2013, Case C-399/11, Melloni.

⁵⁵ ECJ (Grand Chamber) 5 April 2016, Cases C-404/15 and C-659/15 PPU, Aranyosi and Căldăraru, margin number 78; ECJ (Grand Chamber) 6 September 2016, Case C-182/15, Petruhhin; ECJ 1 June 2016, Case C-241/15, Bob-Dogi; ECJ 24 May 2016, Case C-108/16 PPU, Dworzecki. Cf also Lenaerts, K., ‘La vie après l´avis: Exploring the principle of mutual (yet not blind) trust’, 54 CMLRev (2017) p. 805 at p. 811Google Scholar; Lenaerts, K., ‘Keynote Speech – The Court of Justice in an Uncertain World’, in G. Bándi, P. Darák and K. Debisso (eds.), Speeches and Presentations from XXVII FIDE Congress (Wolters Kluwer 2016) p. 58 ffGoogle Scholar; for a critique see Nettesheim, M., ‘Überdehnt der EuGH den Grundsatz des gegenseitigen Vertrauens?’, 20 EUZ (2018) p. 4Google Scholar.

⁵⁶ European Central Bank, Technical Features of Outright Monetary Transactions, 6 September 2012, <www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2012/html/pr120906_1.en.html>, visited 23 October 2018,+visited+23+October+2018>Google Scholar; Decision (EU) 2015/774 of the ECB of 4 March 2015 on a secondary markets public sector asset purchase programme (ECB/2015/10).

⁵⁷ Editorial Comments, supra n. 22, p. 597 at p. 598.

⁵⁸ Weller, M., ‘Mutual trust: in search of the future of European Union private international law’, 11 Journal of Private International Law (2015) p. 64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁹ von Bogdandy, A. and Ioannidis, M., ‘Systemic deficiency in the rule of law: What it is, what has been done, what can be done’, 51 CMLRev (2014) p. 59Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ European Commission for Democracy through Law, Opinion on Amendments to the Act of 25 June 2015 on the Constitutional Tribunal of Poland, CDL-AD(2016)001158, Opinion no 833/2015 (2016); COM(2017)835 final, European Commission, Reasoned Proposal in accordance with Article 7(1) of the Treaty on European Union regarding the rule of law in Poland: Proposal for a Council Decision on the determination of a clear risk of a serious breach by the Republic of Poland of the rule of law.

⁶¹ See ECJ (Grand Chamber) 17 April 2017, Case C-441/17, Commission v Poland (Białowieża Forest).

⁶² Editorial Comments, supra n. 22, p. 598, p. 604.

⁶³ See in particular Weiler, J.H.H., ‘In the Face of Crisis: Input Legitimacy, Output Legitimacy and the Political Messianism of European Integration’, 37 Journal of European Integration (2012) p. 825CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Weiler, J.H.H. and Gend en Loos, Van, ‘The individual as subject and object and the dilemma of European legitimacy’, 12 International Journal of Constitutional Law (2014) p. 94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Papadopoulou, L., Pernice, I. and Weiler, J.H.H. (eds.), Legitimacy Issues of the European Union in the Face of Crisis – Dimitris Tsatsos in memoriam (Nomos 2017)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁴ Weber, Max, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (Mohr 1922) p. 122 ff, 153 ffGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁵ Van Lange, P.A.M., ‘Generalized Trust: Four Lessons from Genetics and Culture’, 24 Current Directions in Psychological Science (2015) p. 71 at p. 73CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁶ Editorial Comments, supra n. 22, p. 597, 598, 604.

⁶⁷ Cf, for example, Cook, K.S., ‘Trust in Society’, in K. S. Cook (ed.), Trust in Society (Russell Sage Foundation 2001) p. xi ffGoogle Scholar, also on the many open research questions.

⁶⁸ Ground-breaking, Luhmann, N., Vertrauen. Ein Mechanismus der Reduktion sozialer Komplexität (Ferdinand Enke Verlag 1968) p. 26Google Scholar, 59 ff; Giddens, A., The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford University Press 1990)Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ Frevert, U., ‘Vertrauen – eine historische Spurensuche’, in U. Frevert (ed.), Vertrauen. Historische Annäherungen (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 2003) p. 7, 9Google Scholar.

⁷⁰ Schüttemeyer, S., ‘Political trust’, in D. Nohlen and R.-O. Schultze (eds.), Lexikon der Politikwissenschaft. Theorien, Methoden, Begriffe, Band 2 (2002) p. 656Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Koselleck, supra n. 2, p. 107.

⁷² Cf, for example, Snyder, supra n. 33, p. 19.

⁷³ European Commission, ‘A new EU Framework to strengthen the Rule of Law’ (Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council) COM (2014) 158 final, 11 March 2014. Cf, for example, H. Hofmeister, ‘Polen als erster Anwendungsfall des neuen “EU Rahmens zur Stärkung des Rechtsstaatsprinzipis”, Deutsches Verwaltungsblatt (2016) p. 869 ff.

⁷⁴ Cf Frevert, supra n. 69, p. 30.

⁷⁵ Kroeger, F., ‘The development, escalation and collapse of system trust: from the financial crisis to society at large’, 33 European Management Journal (2015) p. 431 at p. 434 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁶ Kroeger, supra n. 75.

⁷⁷ Especially in the Hegelian tradition of the ‘ethical life’ of the state. On this, see Honneth, A., Das Recht der Freiheit: Grundriß einer demokratischen Sittlichkeit (Suhrkamp 2011)Google Scholar; Siep, L., Der Staat als irdischer Gott: Genese und Relevanz einer Hegelschen Idee (Mohr Siebeck 2015)Google Scholar.

⁷⁸ Ruzicka, J. and Keating, V.C., ‘Going global: Trust research and international relations’, 5 Journal of Trust Research (2015) p. 8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁹ Genna, G.M., ‘Images of Europeans: transnational trust and support for European integration’, 20 Journal of International Relations and Development (2017) p. 358CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁰ See Canor, supra n. 53, p. 400 referring to Luhmann, N., ‘Familiarity, confidence, trust: problems and alternatives’ in D. Gambetta (ed.), Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations (Blackwell 1988) pp. 99–100Google Scholar.

⁸¹ Michel, T., ‘Time to get emotional: phronetic reflections on the concept of trust in international relations’, 19 EJIR (2013) p. 869, 870Google Scholar; Frevert, supra n. 69, p. 8.

⁸² Schorkopf, F., ‘Wertesicherung in der Europäischen Union. Prävention, Quarantäne und Aufsicht als Bausteine eines Rechts der Verfassungskrise?’, 51 Europarecht (2016) p. 147 at p. 156CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸³ This does not rule out working on less critical policy fields from the perspective of trust as well, cf, for example Hartmann, M., Europäisierung und Verbundvertrauen. Die Verwaltungspraxis des Emissionshandelssystems der Europäischen Union (Mohr Siebeck 2015) p. 14 ffGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁴ Cf, for example, Snyder, supra n. 33.

⁸⁵ On this point Baier, A., ‘Trust and Antitrust’, 96 Ethics (1986) p. 231CrossRefGoogle Scholar at p. 234; taken from Schwarz, M., ‘Let’s talk about trust, baby! Theorizing trust and mutual recognition in the EU’s area of freedom, security and justice’, 24 European Law Journal (2018) p. 124 at p. 133CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁶ Cf, for example, Bundesverfassungsgericht 15 December 2015, Case 2 BvR 2735/14, ECLI:DE:BVerfG:2015:rs20151215.2bvr273514. Tellingly, its test is called identity control (Identitätskontrolle), which conveys an idea of how essential the interests that this test is meant to protect are.

⁸⁷ This section is based on von Bogdandy and Ioannidis, supra n. 59.

⁸⁸ Romano, Seminal S., ‘Diritto (funzione del)’ Law (fragments of), in S. Romano (ed.), Frammenti di un dizionario giuridico Fragments of a Legal Dictionary (Giuffré 1953) p. 76 at p. 81Google Scholar; Luhmann, N., Das Recht der Gesellschaft (Suhrkamp 1993) p. 150–153Google Scholar.

⁸⁹ Simmel, G., Untersuchungen über die Formen der Vergesellschaftung (Suhrkamp 1992 (1st edn., Duncker & Humblot 1908)) p. 389, 393 ffGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁰ Hart, H.L.A., The Concept of Law, 2nd edn. (Oxford University Press 1994) p. 20 ffGoogle Scholar; Kelsen, H., Reine Rechtslehre, 2nd edn. (Verlag Franz Deuticke 1960) p. 34Google Scholar.

⁹¹ Volkmann, U., ‘Was ist Recht?’, 64 Jahrbuch des öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart (2016) p. 281Google Scholar; Frevert, supra n. 69, p. 28 ff.

⁹² Cf, for example, M. Ruffert, ‘All we need is Trust: Conditions are not a Means of Punishment’, Verfassungsblog, 10 March 2017, <www.verfassungsblog.de/all-we-need-is-trust-conditions-are-not-a-means-of-punishment/>, visited 23 October 2018; the coercive character of Union law is indisputable today (see above), but it is not of the quality of state law.

⁹³ Making this point against the trust approach, see Schorkopf, supra n. 82, p. 162.

⁹⁴ In Latin: Fiat iustitia et pereat mundus; on this see Liebs, D., ‘Das Rechtssprichwort Fiat iustitia et pereat mundus’, 70 Juristenzeitung (2015) p. 138CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹⁵ For an overview, see von Bogdandy, A. et al., ‘A potential constitutional moment for the European rule of law. The importance of red lines’, 55 CMLR (2018) p. 963Google Scholar at p. 965; Ioannidis, supra n. 37.

⁹⁶ Cf, for example, Grewe, C. and Ruiz Fabri, H., Droits constitutionnels européens (Presses Univ. de France 1995) p. 22 ffGoogle Scholar; Heuschling, L., Etat de droit – Rechtsstaat – Rule of Law (Dalloz 2002)Google Scholar; Díaz García, E., Estado de derecho y sociedad democrática (Editorial Cuadernos para el Diálogo 1966)Google Scholar; Bingham, T., The Rule of Law (Allen Lane 2010) p. 8Google Scholar.

⁹⁷ For a more detailed discussion, see A. von Bogdandy, C. Grabenwarter and P.M. Huber, ‘Verfassungsgerichtsbarkeit im europäischen Rechtsraum’, in von Bogdandy, Grabenwarter and Huber, supra n. 23, margin number 30 ff.

⁹⁸ This will be identified as a narrow or thin concept of the rule of law. Many European institutions are pushing for a more substantive or thicker one, the value of which is not to be discussed here. For an example, see the Commission’s EU framework to strengthen the rule of law (supra n. 73) p. 4, and Annex I.

⁹⁹ For an extensive discussion, see A.M. Russo, ‘La cittadinanza “sostanziale” dell’UE alla luce della proposta del gruppo di Heidelberg: verso una “reverse Solange”?’, Federalismi, 8 January 2014, p. 7 ff, <www.federalismi.it/ApplOpenFilePDF.cfm?artid=23938&dpath=document&dfile=07012014133121.pdf>, visited 23 October 2018.

¹⁰⁰ See, further, von Bogdandy and Ioannidis, supra n. 59.

¹⁰¹ Luhmann, N., Ausdifferenzierung des Rechts (Suhrkamp 1981) p. 115 ffGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰² Frevert, supra n. 69, p. 24 at p. 44; see also Lenaerts, supra n. 55.

¹⁰³ For five alternatives along and within this path see the relevant European Commission white paper: COM(2017) 2025 final, White paper on the future of Europe. Reflections and scenarios for the EU27 by 2025 (2017).

¹⁰⁴ A succinct compilation of relevant reasons in D. Chalmers, M. Jachtenfuchs and C. Joerges, ‘The retransformation of Europe’, in Chalmers, Jachtenfuchs and Joerges, supra n. 26, p. 1 ff.

¹⁰⁵ On this debate S. Kadelbach, ‘Krise, Umbruch und neue Ordnung’, in Kadelbach and Günther, supra n. 36, p. 9 ff.

¹⁰⁶ Nye, J.S. Jr., ‘Will the Liberal Order Survive? The History of an Idea’, 96 Foreign Affairs (2017) p. 10Google Scholar; Rudolf, P., ‘US-Außenpolitik unter Präsident Trump’, SWP-Aktuell (March 2017)Google Scholar; Wright, T., The 2016 presidential campaign and the crisis of US foreign policy (Lowy Institute Analyses 2016)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ In more detail, A. von Bogdandy, ‘Pondering Schmitt’s Concept of the Political for International Public Authority: Also a Reflection on Methods, Standards and Disciplinary Settings for Public Law Theory’, MPIL Research Paper Series (2016), <papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2864287>, visited 23 October 2018.

¹⁰⁸ Hegemony is making a surprising comeback, even beyond nationalist positions; see the seminal piece by Schönberger, C., ‘Hegemon wider Willen: Zur Stellung Deutschlands in der Europäischen Union’, 66 Merkur (2012) p. 1Google Scholar; Bolaffi, A., Cuore tedesco. Il modello Germania, l’Italia e la crisi europea The German Heart. Germany as a Model, Italy and the European Crisis (Donzelli 2013)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ Influential Streeck, W., Gekaufte Zeit. Die vertagte Krise des demokratischen Kapitalismus (Suhrkamp 2015) p. 292 ffGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁰ Palombella, G., ‘The rule of law beyond the state: failures, promises, and theory’, 7 International Journal of Constitutional Law (2009) p. 442CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a comparison, see von Bogdandy, A., ‘Common principles for a plurality of orders: a study on public authority in the European legal area’, 12 International Journal of Constitutional Law (2014) p. 980 at p. 999CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹¹ Schmalenbach, K., ‘International Organizations or Institutions, Legal Remedies against Acts of Organs’, in R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press 2012)Google Scholar margin number 25; Ruffert, M. and Walter, C., Institutionalisiertes Völkerrecht (C.H. Beck 2009) p. 75Google Scholar.

¹¹² Cf especially Guérot, U., Warum Europa eine Republik werden muss! Eine politische Utopie (Piper 2016) p. 81 ffGoogle Scholar; Verhofstadt, G., Europe’s Last Chance (Basic Books 2017) p. 229 ffGoogle Scholar; in the same vein, now the president of the German Social Democrats Martin Schulz, cf ‘Schulz will Vereinigte Staaten von Europa bis 2025’, Welt, 7 December 2017, <www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article171358179/Schulz-will-Vereinigte-Staaten-von-Europa-bis-2025.html>, visited 23 October 2018.

¹¹³ On this risk in detail, see Goulard, S. and Monti, M., La democrazia in Europa: guardare lontano Democracy in Europe: To See Further (Rizzoli 2012) p. 189 ffGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁴ Cf, for example, World Bank data, <info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/pdf/rl.pdf>, visited 23 October 2018, and the data compiled and presented by the World Justice Programme, <data.worldjusticeproject.org>, visited 23 October 2018.

¹¹⁵ In the seminal words of Robert Schuman, where war is ‘not merely unthinkable, but materially impossible’, Schuman Declaration, 9 May 1950; the original text is Kant, Immanuel, Zum ewigen Frieden (Königsberg, 1796)Google Scholar; on this text, see Vischer, B., ‘Systematicity to excess. Kant’s Conception of the International Legal Order’, in S. Kadelbach, T. Kleinlein and D. Roth-Isigkeit (eds.), System, Order, and International Law (Oxford University Press 2017) p. 303 ffGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁶ Cf Eurobarometer, Public Opinion in the European Union, Standard Eurobarometer 84, Autumn 2015, <ec.europa.eu/COMMFrontOffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/ResultDoc/download/DocumentKy/70150>, visited 23 October 2018; Bertelsmann Stiftung, Mehrheit der jungen Mittel- und Osteuropäer steht fest hinter der EU, 21 March 2017, <www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de/en/topics/aktuelle-meldungen/2017/maerz/majority-of-young-people-in-central-and-eastern-europe-strongly-backs-the-eu/>, visited 23 October 2018.

¹¹⁷ Weber, Max, Parlament und Regierung im neugeordneten Deutschland: Zur politischen Kritik des Beamtentums und Parteiwesens (Duncker & Humblot 1918) p. 99 ffGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁸ Heller, H., ‘Politische Demokratie und soziale Homogenität’, in F. Borinski et al. (eds.), Hermann Heller: Gesammelte Schriften, Band 2 (Mohr Siebeck 1971) p. 421 ffGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁹ van Middelaar, supra n. 20, p. 26.

¹²⁰ Sonnevend, P., ‘Preserving the Acquis of Transformative Constitutionalism in Times of Constitutional Crisis: Lessons from the Hungarian Case’, in A. von Bogdandy et al. (eds.), Transformative Constitutionalism in Latin America (Oxford University Press 2017) p. 123 at p. 144 ffGoogle Scholar: ‘The example of Hungary shows that outsourcing parts of the constitutional functions to international or supranational organizations in peaceful years may help survive the years of crisis. (…) European institutions contributed to creating a situation where self-healing through domestic processes is still possible’.

¹²¹ See, recently, ECJ (Grand Chamber) 27 February 2018, Case C-64/16, Associação Sindical dos Juízes Portugueses; ECJ (Grand Chamber) 25 July 2018, Case C-216/18 PPU, Minister for Justice and Equality; Commission v Poland (Białowieża Forest), supra n. 61; see further, von Bogdandy, A. et al., ‘A potential constitutional moment for the European rule of law. The importance of red lines’, 55 CMLR (2018) p. 963Google Scholar.

¹²² M. Ivaškevičius, ‘Europa mit den Augen eines Verliebten’, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 February 2017, p. 6.