Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T17:57:26.996Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Schizophrenia and the environment: speculative interventions

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 October 2011

Richard Warner
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Objective – Starting from research on environmental factors that influence schizophrenia, the author speculates on innovations that could reduce the occurrence of the illness, improve its course and enhance the quality of life of sufferers and their relatives. Results – Ranging from education about obstetric risks to a stigma-reducing campaign, the suggestions could be of interest, not only to clinicians, but also to advocates, policy-makers and communications specialists. Conclusions – Several of the suggestions, which would be innovative in the United States, are already established features of Italian mental health care. These features include social enterprises, family support payments and a disability pension system without severe disincentives to work.

Riassunto

Scopo – Partendo dalla ricerca dei fattori ambientali che influenzano la schizofrenia, l'autore prende in considerazione le innovazioni che potrebbero ridurre la comparsa della malattia, migliorare il suo decorso e la qualita della vita dei pazienti e dei loro familiari. Risultati – Questi suggerimenti, che riguardano vari aspetti, dall'educazione relativa ai rischi ostetrici fino alia campagna per ridurre lo stigma, potrebbero interessare non solo i clinici, ma anche gli autori, i politici e gli specialisti della comunicazione. Conclusioni – Molti dei suggerimenti, contenuti in questo lavoro, che rappresenterebbero una novità negli Stati Uniti, sono caratteristiche acquisite nella psichiatria italiana. Tali caratteristiche includono imprese sociali, spese per fornire supporto alia famiglia ed un sistema pensionistico di invalidita privo di pesanti disincentivi al lavoro.

Keywords

schizophreniaenvironmental factorschangesschizofreniafattori ambientaliinnovazioni.
Type
Invited Paper
Information
Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences , Volume 8 , Issue 1 , March 1999 , pp. 19 - 34
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Anthony, W.A., Cohen, M.R. & Danley, K.S. (1988). The psychiatric rehabilitation model as applied to vocational rehabilitation. In Vocational Rehabilitation of Persons with Prolonged Psychiatric Disorders (ed. Cardiello, J.A. and Bell, M.D.), pp. 59–80. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.Google Scholar
Angermeyer, M.C. (1983). «Normal deviance:» Changing norms under abnormal circumstances. Paper presented at the 7th World Congress of Psychiatry, Vienna, 1983 July 11-16.Google Scholar
Arnold, R. (1998). Employment and disability. Psychiatric Services 49, 1361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Averett, S., Warner, R., Little, J. & Huxley, P. (submitted for publication). Work, disability benefits and mental illness: A structural model.Google Scholar
Bailey, E.L., Ricketts, S.K., Becker, D.R. et al. (1998). Do long-term day clients benefit from supported employment? Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 22, 24–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, R.C. (1993). Mental illness in British newspapers (or my girlfriend is a Rover Metro). Psychiatric Bulletin 17, 673–674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, J. & Worthen, K. (1972). Precipitating stress, crisis theory, and hospitalization in schizophrenia and depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 26, 123–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berkowitz, R., Kuipers, L., Eberlein-Fries, R. & Leff, J.P. (1981). Lowering expressed emotion in relatives of schizophrenics. New Direction in Mental Health Services 12, 27–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berndt, E.R. (1991). The Practice of Econometrics: Classic and Contemporary. Addison-Wesley: Reading, Massachussetts.Google Scholar
Bohlen, C. (1996). For young Italians, there's no place like home. International Herald Tribune, Paris, March 14.Google Scholar
Bond, G.R., Drake, R.E., Mueser, K.T. & Becker, D.R. (1997). An update on supported employment for people with severe mental illness. Psychiatric Services 48, 335–346.Google ScholarPubMed
Borenstein, A.B. (1992). Public attitudes towards persons with mental illness. Health Affairs Fall, 186–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyles, P. (1988). Mentally ill gain a foothold in working world. Boston Sunday Globe, June 5.Google Scholar
Brenner, M.H. (1973). Mental Illness and the Economy. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Bromberg, W. (1975). From Shaman to Psychotherapist: A History of the Treatment of Mental Illness. Henry Regnery: Chicago.Google Scholar
Brown, G.W. & Birley, J.L.T. (1968). Crises and life changes and the onset of schizophrenia. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 9, 203–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, G.W., Carstairs, G.M. & Topping, G. (1958). Post-hospital adjustment of chronic mental patients. Lancet ii, 685–689.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buckley, P., Thompson, P., Way, L. & Meltzer, H.Y. (1994). Substance abuse among patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: Characteristics and implications for clozapine therapy. American Journal of Psychiatry 151, 385–389.Google ScholarPubMed
Burtless, G. & Hausman, J. (1978). The effects of taxation on labor supply: evaluating the Gary Income Maintenance Experiment. Journal of Political Economy 86, 1103–1130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter, M.D., Mulligan, J.C., Bader, I.A. & Meinzer, A.E. (1985). Multiple admissions to an urban psychiatric center. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 31, 397–400.Google Scholar
Cheek, F.E. (1965). Family interaction patterns and convalescent adjustment of the schizophrenic. Archives of General Psychiatry 13, 138–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cockerham, W.C. (1981). Sociology of Mental Disorder. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Cohen, L. (1955). Vocational planning and mental illness. Personnel and Guidance Journal 34, 28–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Consumer Health Sciences (1997). The Schizophrenia Patient Project: Brief Summary of Results-September 1997. Consumer Health Sciences: Princeton, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Craig, T.J., Lin, S.P., El-Defrawi, M.H. & Goodman, A.B. (1985). Clinical correlates of readmission in a schizophrenic cohort. Psychiatric Quarterly 57, 5–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creer, C. (1975). Living with schizophrenia. Social Work Today 6, 2–7.Google Scholar
Cumming, E. & Cumming, J. (1957). Closed Ranks: An Experiment in Mental Health Education. Harvard University Press: Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Arcy, C. & Brockman, J. (1976). Changing public recognition of psychiatric symptoms? Blackfoot revisited. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 17, 302–310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doherty, E.G. (1975). Labeling effects in psychiatric hospitalization: A study of diverging patterns of inpatient self-labeling processes. Archives of General Psychiatry 32, 562–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drake, R.E. & Wallach, M.A. (1989). Substance abuse among the chronically mentally ill. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 40, 1041–1046.Google Scholar
Drury, V., Birchwood, M, Cochrane, R. & Macmillan, F. (1996a). Cognitive therapy and recovery from acute psychosis: A controlled trial: I. Impact on psychotic symptoms. British Journal of Psychiatry 169, 593–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drury, V., Birchwood, M., Cochrane, R. & Macmillan, F. (1996b). Cognitive therapy and recovery from acute psychosis: A controlled trial: II. Impact on recovery time. British Journal of Psychiatry 169, 602–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, W.C. (1838). A Treatise on the Nature, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment of Insanity. Samuel Holdsworth: London.Google Scholar
Fairweather, G.W., Sanders, D.H., Maynard, H. et al. (1969). Community Life for the Mentally III. Aldine: Chicago.Google Scholar
Falloon, I.R.H., Boyd, J.L., McGill, C.W., Razani, J., Moss, H.B. & Gilderman, A.M. (1982). Family management in the prevention of exacerbations of schizophrenia: A controlled study. New England Journal of Medicine 306, 1437–1440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falloon, I.R.H., Boyd, J.L. & McGill, C.W. (1984). Family Care of Schizophrenia. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
Fioritti, A., Ferri, S., Galassi, L. & Warner, R. (1997). Substance use among the mentally ill: A comparison of Italian and American samples. Community Mental Health Journal 33, 429–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frean, A. (1997). EastEnders praised for breaking taboo on schizophrenia. The Times (London), May 10.Google Scholar
Freedman, R., Coon, H., Myles-Worsley, M., Orr-Utreger, A. et al. (1997). Linkage of a neurophysiological deficit in schizophrenia to a chromosome 15 locus. In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 94, pp. 587–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, H.E. & Simmons, O.G. (1963). The Mental Patient Comes Home. Wiley: New York.Google Scholar
Geddes, J.R. & Lawrie, S.M. (1995). Obstetric complications and schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 167, 786–793.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M. & Signorielli, N. (1981). Health and medicine on television. New England Journal of Medicine 305, 901–904.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, J.S., Greenley, J.R. & Benedict, P. (1994). Contributions of persons with serious mental illness to their families. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 45, 475–480.Google ScholarPubMed
Hall, P., Brockington, I.F., Levings, J. & Murphy, C. (1993). A comparison of responses to the mentally ill in two communities. British Journal of Psychiatry 162, 99–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hatfield, A. (1978). Psychosocial costs of schizophrenia to the family. Social Work 23, 355–359.Google Scholar
Jablensky, A., Sartorius, N., Ernberg, G., Anker, M., Korten, A., Cooper, J.E., Day, R. & Bertelsen, A. (1992). Schizophrenia: Manifestations, Incidence and Course in Different Cultures. A World Health Organization Ten-country Study. Psychological Medicine, Monograph supplement No. 20, pp. 1–97.Google Scholar
Jacobs, H.E., Wissusik, D., Collier, R., Stackman, D. & Burkeman, D. (1992). Correlations between psychiatric disabilities and vocational outcome. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 43, 365–369.Google ScholarPubMed
Jerrell, J.M. & Ridgely, M.R. (1995). Comparative effectiveness of three approaches to serving people with severe mental illness and substance abuse disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 183, 566–576.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, P.B., Rantakallio, P., Hartikainen, A.L., Isohanni, M. & Sipila, P. (1998). Schizophrenia as a long-term outcome of pregnancy, delivery, and perinatal complications: A 28-year follow-up of the 1966 North Finland general population birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 355–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kavanagh, D.J. (1992). Recent developments in expressed emotion and schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 160, 601–620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreisman, D.E. & Joy, V.D. (1974). Family response to the mental illness of a relative: A review of the literature. Schizophrenia Bulletin 10, 34–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuipers, E., Garety, P., Fowler, D., Dunn, G., Bebbington, P., Freeman, D. & Hadley, C. (1997). London-East Anglia randomised controlled trial of cognitive-behaviour therapy for psychosis: II: Effects of the treatment phase. British Journal of Psychiatry 171, 319–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leff, J. (1996). Working with families of schizophrenic patients: Effects on clinical and social outcomes. In Handbook of Mental Health Economics and Health Policy: Volume 1: Schizophrenia (ed. Moscarelli, M., Rupp, A. and Sartorius, N.), pp. 261–270. Wiley: New York.Google Scholar
Leff, J. & Vaughn, C. (1981). The role of maintenance therapy and relatives' expressed emotion in relapse in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 139, 102–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leff, J. & Vaughn, C. (1985). Expressed Emotion in Families. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
McFarlane, W.R. (ed.) (1983). Family Therapy in Schizophrenia. Guilford Press: New York.Google Scholar
McNeil, T.F. (1988). Obstetric factors and perinatal injuries'. In Nosology, Epidemiology and Genetics. Handbook of Schizophrenia, Volume 3 (ed. Tsuang, M.T. and Simpson, J.C.). Elsevier Science Publishers: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Moffit, R. (1990). The econometrics of kinked budget constraints. Journal of Economic Perspectives 4, 119–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mueser, K.T., Yarnold, P.R., Levinson, D.F., Singh, H., Bellack, A.S., Kee, K.Morrison, R.L. & Yadalam, K.G. (1990). Prevalence of substance abuse in schizophrenia: Demographic and clinical correlates. Schizophrenia Bulletin 16(1), 31–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noordsy, D.L., Schwab, B., Fox, L. & Drake, R.E. (1996). The role of self-help programs in the rehabilitation of persons with severe mental illness and substance use disorders. Community Mental Health Journal 32, 71–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nunally, J.C. (1961). Popular Conceptions of Mental Health: Their Development and Change. Holt, Rinehart and Winston: New York.Google Scholar
O'Grady, T.J. (1996). Public attitudes to mental illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 168, 652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olmsted, D.W. & Durham, K. (1976). Stability of mental health attitudes: A semantic differential study. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 17, 35–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, G. & Hadzi-Pavlovic, D. (1990). Expressed emotion as a predictor of schizophrenic relapse: An analysis of aggregated data. Psychological Medicine 20, 961–965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Philo, G. (1994). Media images and popular beliefs. Psychiatric Bulletin 18, 173–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polak, P. & Warner, R, (1996). The economic life of seriously mentally people in the community. Psychiatric Services 47, 270–274.Google ScholarPubMed
Rabkin, J.G. (1980). Determinants of public attitudes about mental illness: Summary of the research literature, presented at the National Institute of Mental Health Conference on Stigma Toward the Mentally Ill, Rockville, Maryland, January 24-25.Google Scholar
Rabkin, J.G. (1982). Stress and psychiatric disorders. In Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects (ed. Goldberger, L. and Breznitz, S.), pp. 566–584. Free Press: New York.Google Scholar
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (1990). Public Attitudes Toward People with Chronic Mental Illness. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Program on Chronic Mental Illness: New Jersey.Google Scholar
Roberts, J.D. & Ward, I.M. (1987). Commensurate Wage Determination for Service Contracts. Ohio Industries for the Handicapped: Columbus, Ohio.Google Scholar
Rogers, E.M. (1996). The field of health communication today: An up-to-date report. Journal of Health Communication 1, 15–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations, 5th ed. Free Press: New York.Google ScholarPubMed
Rogers, E.M., Dearing, J.H., Rao, N. et al. (1995). Communication and community in a city under siege: The AIDS epidemic in San Francisco. Communication Research 22, 664–677.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rovner, S. (1993). Mental illness on TV. Washington Post, July 6.Google Scholar
Safer, D.J. (1985). Substance abuse by young adult chronic patients. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 38, 853–858.Google Scholar
Sartorius, N. (1997). Fighting schizophrenia and its stigma: A new World Psychiatric Association educational programme. British Journal of Psychiatry 170, 297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shain, R.E. & Phillips, J. (1991). The stigma of mental illness: Labeling and stereotyping in the news. In Risky Business: Communicating Issues of Science, Risk and Public Policy (ed. Wilkins, L. and Patterson, P.). Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Sham, P.C., O'Callaghan, E., Takei, N., Murray, G.K., Hare, E.H. & Murray, R.M. (1992). Schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to influenza epidemics between 1939 and 1960. British Journal of Psychiatry 160, 461–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Star, S. (1955). The public's idea about mental illness, presented at the National Association for Mental Health meeting, Chicago, Illinois, November.Google Scholar
Steadman, H. & Cocozza, J. (1978). Selective reporting and the public's misconceptions of the criminally insane. Public Opinion Quarterly 41, 523–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturgeon, D., Kuipers, L., Berkowitz, R., Turpin, G.Leff, J. (1981). Psychophysiological responses of schizophrenic patients to high and low expressed emotion relatives. British Journal of Psychiatry 138, 40–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Surles, R.C., Morrison, B.J., Sheets, J.L. & Shaheen, G.E. (1992). Buy OMH Directory of Products and Services. New York State Office of Mental Health Bureau of Psychiatric Rehabilitation Services: Albany, NY.Google Scholar
Tarrier, N., Vaughn, C.E., Lader, M.H. & Leff, J.P. (1979). Bodily reaction to people and events in schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry 36, 311–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarrier, N., Beckett, R., Harwood, S., Baker, A., Yusupoff, L. & Ugarteburu, I. (1993). A trial of two cognitive-behavioural methods of treating drug-resistant residual psychotic symptoms in schizophrenic patients: I. Outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry 162, 524–532.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Test, M.A., Wallisch, L.S., Allness, D.J. & Ripp, K. (1989). Substance use in young adults with schizophrenic disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin 15, 465–476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, S., Sun, C., Walczak, C.A., Ziegle, J.S., Kipps, B.R., Goldin, L.R. & Diehl, S.R. (1995). Evidence for a susceptibility locus for schizophrenia on chromosome 6pter-p22. Nature Genetics 10, 41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner, R. (1994). Recovery from Schizophrenia: Psychiatry and Political Economy. Routledge: New York.Google Scholar
Warner, R. (1995). From patient management to risk management. In Alternatives to the Hospital for Acute Psychiatric Treatment (ed. Warner, R.), pp. 237–248. American Psychiatric Press: Washington DC.Google Scholar
Warner, R. & Atkinson, M. (1988). The relationship between schizophrenic patients' perceptions of their parents and the course of their illness. British Journal of Psychiatry 153, 344–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner, R. & de Girolamo, G. (1995). Epidemiology of Mental Problems and Psychosocial Problems: Schizophrenia. World Health Organization: Geneva.Google Scholar
Warner, R. & Ruggieri, M. (unpublished). The quality of life of people with schizophrenia in Boulder, Colorado, and Verona, Italy.Google Scholar
Warner, R., Taylor, D., Powers, M. & Hyman, J. (1989). Acceptance of the mental illness label by psychotic patients: Effects on functioning. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 59, 398–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner, R., Miklowitz, D. & Sachs-Ericsson, N. (1991). Expressed emotion, patient attributes and outcome in psychosis. Paper presented at Royal College of Psychiatrists Spring Quarterly Meeting, Leicester, April 16-17.Google Scholar
Warner, R., Taylor, D., Wright, J., Sloat, A., Springett, G., Arnold, S. & Weinberg, H. (1994). Substance use among the mentally ill: Prevalence, reasons for use and effects on illness. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 64, 465–476.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warner, R., de Girolamo, G., Belelli, G. et al. (1998). The quality of life of people with schizophrenia in Boulder, Colorado, and Bologna, Italy. Schizophrenia Bulletin 24, 559–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolff, G. (1997). Attitudes of the media and the public. In Care in The Community: Illusion or Reality? (ed. Leff, J.), pp. 144–163. Wiley: New York.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1979). Schizophrenia: An International Follow-up Study. Wiley: Chichester.Google Scholar
Yarrow, M., Clausen, J. & Robbins, P. (1955). The social meaning of mental illness. Journal of Social Issues 11, 33–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zisook, S., Heaton, R., Moranville, J., Moranville, J., Kuck, J., Jernigan, T. & Braff, D. (1992). Past substance abuse and clinical course of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 149, 552–553.Google ScholarPubMed