perhaps the most perplexing and difficult of environmental conflicts are the ones that last for long periods of time, resurface routinely, and seem to go on forever. governmental officials, stakeholders, and even interventionists describe these disputes as “a way of life,” “a long drawn–out affair,” and “still fighting the same fight for 20 years” (putnam and wondolleck, 2003). this type of conflict distinguishes itself from other disputes as being more divisive, involving more layers of agencies and social organizations, weaving in complex and overlapping issues, and typically fostering destructive and self–perpetuating patterns. these controversies often lead to violence, as exemplified in social conflicts over abortion and race relations, and in disputes currently ongoing in the middle east.