Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T16:48:39.688Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Interdisciplinary perspectives on historical ecology and environmental policy in Papua New Guinea

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 February 2011

COLIN FILER
COLIN FILER*
Affiliation:
Resource Management in Asia Pacific Program, Coombs Building Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia
*
*Correspondence: Colin Filer [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Papua New Guinea (PNG) has been the site of a great deal of scientific work, and a fair amount of interdisciplinary debate, within the broad field of historical ecology, which encompasses the study of indigenous society-environment relationships over different time periods. However, this in itself provides no guarantee that scientists engaged in such debate will have a greater influence on the formulation of environmental conservation policies in a state where indigenous decision makers now hold the levers of political power. Five environmental policy paradigms which have emerged in the course of public debate about environmental conservation in PNG over the past half century; the wildlife management, environmental planning, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem assessment, and carbon sequestration paradigms. Each paradigm has framed a distinctive form of interdisciplinary debate about indigenous society-environment relationships within a contemporary political framework. However, a further connection can be drawn between the role of interdisciplinary debate in an evolving national policy framework and the history of scientific debate about the nature of indigenous society-environment relationships in the pre-colonial era. This connection places a distinctive emphasis on the relationship between indigenous agricultural practices and management of the national forest estate for reasons which are themselves a contingent effect of the nature of European colonial intervention over the course of the last century and a half. This particular bias in the relationship between historical ecology and environmental policy has lasted down to the present day. PNG's environmental policy problems are unlikely to have any rational or sensible solution in the absence of a better scientific understanding of the complexity of indigenous society-environment relationships. Scientists need to understand the complexity of the environmental policy process as a historical process in its own right in order to work out which policy problems offer both the scope and the incentive to sustain specific forms of interdisciplinary debate that are likely to produce better policy outcomes.

Keywords

interdisciplinarityhistorical ecologyenvironmental policyPapua New Guinea
Type
THEMATIC SECTION: Interdisciplinary Progress in Environmental Science & Management
Information
Environmental Conservation , Volume 38 , Issue 2: Thematic section. Interdisciplinary Progress in Environmental Science and Management , June 2011 , pp. 256 - 269
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation for Environmental Conservation 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alcorn, J.B. & Beehler, B.M., eds (1993) Papua New Guinea Conservation Needs Assessment. Washington, DC, USA: Biodiversity Support Program.Google Scholar
Allen, B.J. & Ballard, C., eds (2001) Agricultural Transformation and Intensification. Special issue 42(2/3) of Asia Pacific Viewpoint.Google Scholar
Allen, B.J., Bourke, R.M. & Hanson, L. (2001) Dimensions of PNG village agriculture. In: Food Security for Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, ed. Bourke, R.M., Allen, M.G. & Salisbury, J.G., pp. 529–553. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (Proceedings 99).Google Scholar
Anderson, T. (2005) Challenging ‘integrated conservation and development’ in Papua New Guinea: the Bismarck-Ramu Group. Pacific Economic Bulletin 20: 56–70.Google Scholar
Balée, W. (2006) The research program of historical ecology. Annual Review of Anthropology 35: 75–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballard, C., Brown, P., Bourke, R.M. & Harwood, T., eds (2005) The Sweet Potato in Oceania: a Reappraisal. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney (Oceania Monograph 56).Google Scholar
Banks, G. (2002) Mining and the environment in Melanesia: contemporary debates reviewed. Contemporary Pacific 14: 39–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayliss-Smith, T.F. & Golson, J. (1992) A Colocasian revolution in the New Guinea highlands? Insights from Phase 4 at Kuk. Archaeology in Oceania 27: 1–21.Google Scholar
Bellamy, J.A. & McAlpine, J.R. (1995) Papua New Guinea Inventory of Natural Resources, Population Distribution and Land Use Handbook. Canberra, Australia: Australian Agency for International Development (PNGRIS Publication 6).Google Scholar
Bellwood, P. (1978) Man's Conquest of the Pacific. London, UK: Collins.Google Scholar
Bellwood, P., Fox, J.J. & Tryon, D., eds (1995) The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Canberra, Australia: Australian National University, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Department of Anthropology.Google Scholar
Bleeker, P. (1983) Soils of Papua New Guinea. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Blust, R. (1995) The prehistory of the Austronesian-speaking peoples. Journal of World Archaeology 9 (4): 453–510.Google Scholar
Bolton, B., ed. (2009) The Fly River, Papua New Guinea: Environmental Studies in an Impacted Tropical River System. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier (Developments in Earth and Environmental Sciences 9).Google Scholar
Boserup, E. (1965) The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: the Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure. London, UK: George Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Bourke, R.M. (2001) An overview of food security in PNG. In: Food security for Papua New Guinea: Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference, ed. Bourke, R.M., Allen, M.G. & Salisbury, J.G., pp. 5–14. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (Proceedings 99).Google Scholar
Bourke, R.M., Allen, B.J., Hobsbawm, P. & Conway, J. (1998) Agricultural systems of Papua New Guinea: Working Paper 1. Australian National University, PNG Department of Agriculture and Livestock, and University of Papua New Guinea, Canberra, Australia and Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.Google Scholar
Bowers, N. (1968) The ascending grasslands: an anthropological study of ecological succession in a high mountain valley of New Guinea. Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.Google Scholar
Brockington, D. (2009) Celebrity and the Environment: Fame, Wealth and Power in Conservation. London, UK: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Brookfield, H. & White, P. (1968) Revolution or evolution in the prehistory of the New Guinea highlands: a seminar report. Ethnology 7: 43–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brosius, J.P. (2006) What counts as local knowledge in global environmental assessments and conventions? In: Bridging Scales and Knowledge Systems: Concepts and Applications in Ecosystem Assessment, ed. Reid, W.V., Berkes, F., Wilbanks, T. & Capistrano, D., pp. 129–144. Washington, DC, USA: Island Press.Google Scholar
Bulmer, R.N.H. (1979) Mystical and mundane in Kalam classification of birds. In: Classifications in Their Social Context, ed. Ellen, R.F. & Reason, D., pp. 57–79. London, UK: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bulmer, R.N.H. (1982) Traditional conservation practices in Papua New Guinea. In: Traditional Conservation in Papua New Guinea: Implications for Today, ed. Morauta, L., Pernetta, J. & Heaney, W., pp. 79–82. Boroko, Papua New Guinea: Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research (Monograph 16).Google Scholar
Bulmer, S. & Bulmer, R. (1964) The prehistory of the Australian New Guinea Highlands. American Anthropologist 66 (4.2): 39–76.Google Scholar
Carrier, J.G. (1987) Marine tenure and conservation in Papua New Guinea: problems in interpretation. In: The Question of the Commons: the Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources, ed. McCay, B.J. & Acheson, J.M., pp. 142–167. Tucson, AZ, USA: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Chatterton, P., Yamuna, R., Higgins-Zogib, L., Mitchell, N., Hall, M., Sabi, J. & Jano, W. (2006) Assessment of the effectiveness of management in protected areas in Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: PNG Department of Environment and Conservation.Google Scholar
Cinner, J. (2007) Designing marine reserves to reflect local socioeconomic conditions: lessons from long-enduring customary management systems. Coral Reefs 26: 1035–1045.Google Scholar
de Coppet, D. & Iteanu, A., eds (1995) Cosmos and Society in Oceania. Oxford, UK: Berg.Google Scholar
Denham, T. (2004) The roots of agriculture and arboriculture in New Guinea: looking beyond Austronesian expansion, Neolithic packages and indigenous origins. World Archaeology 36: 610–620.Google Scholar
Denham, T.P., Golson, J. & Hughes, P.J. (2003) Reading early agriculture at Kuk (Phases 1–3), Wahgi Valley, Papua New Guinea: the wetland agricultural features. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 70: 259–297.Google Scholar
Diamond, J. (1998) Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years. London, UK: Vintage.Google Scholar
Diamond, J. (2005) Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York, NY, USA: Viking.Google Scholar
Diamond, J. (2009) Will big business save the earth? New York Times 5 December 2009.Google Scholar
Diamond, J.M. (1975) The island dilemma: lessons of modern biogeographic studies for the design of natural reserves. Biological Conservation 7: 129–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diamond, J.M. & Bellwood, P. (2003) Farmers and their languages: the first expansions. Science 300: 597–603.Google Scholar
Douglas, B. & Ballard, C., eds (2008) Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race 1750–1940. Canberra, Australia: ANU E Press.Google Scholar
Dwyer, P.D. (1982) Wildlife conservation and tradition in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. In: Traditional Conservation in Papua New Guinea: Implications for Today, ed. Morauta, L., Pernetta, J. & Heaney, W., pp. 173–189. Boroko, Papua New Guinea: Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research.Google Scholar
Eaton, P. (1997) Reinforcing traditional tenure: wildlife management areas in Papua New Guinea. In: Conservation through Cultural Survival: Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas, ed. Stevens, S., pp. 225–236. Washington, DC, USA: Island Press.Google Scholar
Fairbairn, A. (2005) An archaeobotanical perspective on Holocene plant-use practices in lowland northern New Guinea. World Archaeology 37: 487–502.Google Scholar
Fairbairn, A.S., Hope, G.S. & Summerhayes, G.R. (2006) Pleistocene occupation of New Guinea's highland and subalpine environments. World Archaeology 38: 371–386.Google Scholar
Faith, D.P., Nix, H.A., Margules, C.R., Hutchinson, M.F., Walker, P.A., West, J., Stein, J.L., Kesteven, J.L., Allison, A. & Natera, G. (2001) The BioRap biodiversity assessment and planning study for Papua New Guinea. Pacific Conservation Biology 6: 279–288.Google Scholar
Feil, D.K. (1987) The Evolution of Papua New Guinea Highland Societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Filer, C. (1990) The Bougainville rebellion, the mining industry and the process of social disintegration in Papua New Guinea. Canberra Anthropology 13: 1–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Filer, C. (1998) Loggers, Donors and Resource Owners. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development in association with the National Research Institute (Policy That Works for Forests and People, Papua New Guinea Country Study).Google Scholar
Filer, C. (2004) The knowledge of indigenous desire: disintegrating conservation and development in Papua New Guinea. In: Development and Local Knowledge: New Approaches to Issues in Natural Resources Management, Conservation and Agriculture, ed. Bicker, A., Sillitoe, P. & Pottier, J., pp. 64–93. London, UK: Routledge.Google Scholar
Filer, C. (2005) The role of land-owning communities in Papua New Guinea's mineral policy framework. In: International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy: Trends and Prospects, ed. Bastida, E., Wälde, T. & Warden-Fernández, J., pp. 903–932. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.Google Scholar
Filer, C. (2009) A bridge too far: the knowledge problem in the Millennium Assessment. In: Virtualism, Governance and Practice: Vision and Execution in Environmental Conservation, ed. Carrier, J.G. & West, P., pp. 84–111. New York: Berghahn Books.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Filer, C., Foale, S., Kennedy, J., Kocher Schmid, C., McKenzie, L., Sheaves, M. & Sullivan, M. (2004) Sub-global assessment of coastal, small island and coral reef ecosystems in Papua New Guinea: summary national report. Report to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Where, Country?Google Scholar
Filer, C., Keenan, R.J., Allen, B.J. & McAlpine, J.R. (2009) Deforestation and forest degradation in Papua New Guinea. Annals of Forest Science 66: 813.Google Scholar
Flannery, T.F. (1990) The Mammals of New Guinea. Carina, QLD, Australia: Robert Brown & Associates.Google Scholar
Flannery, T.F. (1994) The Future Eaters: an Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People. Chatswood, NSW, Australia: Reed Books.Google Scholar
Flannery, T.F. (1998) Throwim Way Leg: an Adventure. Melbourne, NSW, Australia: Tex Publishing.Google Scholar
Flannery, T.F., Long, J., Archer, M. & Hand, S. (2002) Prehistoric Mammals of Australia and New Guinea: One Hundred Years of Evolution. Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press.Google Scholar
Flannery, T. & WWF (Worldwide Fund for Nature) (2007) Sequestration of carbon in tropical forests: a concept paper for PNG. Submission to the Garnaut Climate Change Review, 18 October 2007 [www document]. URL http://www.garnautreview.org.au/CA25734E0016A131/WebObj/TimFlannery/$File/Tim%20Flannery.pdfGoogle Scholar
Foale, S. (2005) Sharks, sea slugs and skirmishes: managing marine and agricultural resources on small, overpopulated islands in Milne Bay, PNG. Australian National University, Research School of Asian and Pacific Studies, Resource Management in Asia-Pacific Program (Working Paper 64), Canberra, Australia.Google Scholar
Foale, S. & Manele, B. (2004) Social and political barriers to the use of Marine Protected Areas for conservation and fishery management in Melanesia. Asia Pacific Viewpoint 45: 373–386.Google Scholar
Golson, J. (1977) No room at the top: agricultural intensification in the New Guinea Highlands. In: Sunda and Sahul: Prehistoric Studies in Southeast Asia, Melanesia and Australia, ed. Allen, J., Golson, J. & Jones, R., pp. 601–638. London, UK: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Golson, J. & Gardner, D. (1990) Agriculture and sociopolitical organization in New Guinea highlands prehistory. Annual Review of Anthropology 19: 395–417.Google Scholar
Gressitt, J.L., ed. (1982) Biogeography and Ecology of New Guinea. The Hague, the Netherlands: Dr W. Junk.Google Scholar
Haberle, S.G. (2003) The emergence of an agricultural landscape in the highlands of New Guinea. Archaeology in Oceania 38: 149–158.Google Scholar
Haberle, S.G., Hope, G.S. & Van Der Kaars, S. (2001) Biomass burning in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea: natural and human induced fire events in the fossil record. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171: 259–268.Google Scholar
Hames, R. (2007) The ecologically noble savage debate. Annual Review of Anthropology 36: 177–190.Google Scholar
Hanson, L.W., Allen, B.J., Bourke, R.M. & McCarthy, T.J. (2001) Papua New Guinea Rural Development Handbook. Canberra, Australia: Australian National University, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Department of Human Geography.Google Scholar
Healey, C.J. (1986) Men and birds in the Jimi Valley: the impact of man on birds of paradise in the Papua New Guinea highlands. Muruk 1 (2): 1–34.Google Scholar
Hope, G.S. (2007) The history of human impact on New Guinea. In: The Ecology of Papua (2 volumes), ed. Marshall, A.J. & Beehler, B.M., pp. 1087–1097. Singapore: Periplus Editions.Google Scholar
Hughes, P. & Sullivan, M. (1989) Environmental impact assessment in Papua New Guinea: lessons for the wider Pacific region. Pacific Viewpoint 30: 34–55.Google Scholar
Humphreys, G.S. & Brookfield, H. (1991) The use of unstable steeplands in the mountains of Papua New Guinea. Mountain Research and Development 11 (4): 295–318.Google Scholar
Hyndman, D., Ulijasek, S.J. & Lourie, J.A. (1989) Variability in body physique, ecology and subsistence in the Fly River region of Papua New Guinea. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 79: 89–101.Google Scholar
Johannes, R.E. (1978) Traditional marine conservation methods in Oceania and their demise. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 9: 349–364.Google Scholar
Kelola, T. (2010) Carbon is a cargo cult: MP. PNG Post-Courier 2 March 2010.Google Scholar
Kennedy, J. & Clarke, W. (2007) Tree crops and the cultivated landscapes of the Southwest Pacific. In: Environment, Development and Change in Rural Asia-Pacific: Between Local and Global, ed. Connell, J. & Waddell, E., pp. 76–90. New York, NY, USA: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kirch, P.V. (1997) The Lapita Peoples. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Kirsch, S. (2006) Reverse Anthropology: Indigenous Analysis of Social and Environmental Relations in New Guinea. Stanford, CA, USA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane Poole, C.E. (1925) The forest resources of the Territories of Papua and New Guinea. Report to the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, Melbourne, Australia.Google Scholar
Lebot, V. (1999) Biomolecular evidence for plant domestication in Sahul. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 46: 619–628.Google Scholar
Löffler, E., ed. (1977) Geomorphology of Papua New Guinea. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
MacArthur, R.H. & Wilson, E.O. (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Macintyre, M. & Foale, S. (2004) Politicized ecology: local responses to mining in Papua New Guinea. Oceania 74: 231–251.Google Scholar
Maffi, L. & Woodley, E., eds (2010) Biocultural Diversity Conservation: a Global Sourcebook. London, UK: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Malinowski, B. (1944) A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays. Chapel Hill, NC, USA: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Manner, H.I. (1976) The effects of shifting cultivation and fire on vegetation and soils in the montane tropics of New Guinea. Ph.D. thesis, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
Matisoo-Smith, E. (2009) The commensal model for human settlement of the Pacific 10 years on: what can we say and where to now? Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 4: 151–163.Google Scholar
Mayr, E. & Diamond, J. (2001) The Birds of Northern Melanesia: Speciation, Ecology and Biogeography. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McAlpine, J.R., Keig, G. & Falls, R. (1983) Climate of Papua New Guinea. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
McAnany, P. & Yoffee, N., eds (2009) Questioning Collapse: Human Resilience, Ecological Vulnerability, and the Aftermath of Empire. New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
McCallum, R. & Sekhran, N. (1997) Race for the Rainforest: Evaluating Lessons from an Integrated Conservation and Development ‘Experiment’ in New Ireland, Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby. Papua New Guinea: PNG Biodiversity Conservation and Resource Management Programme.Google Scholar
Nix, H.A., Faith, D.P., Hutchinson, M.F., Margules, C.R., West, J., Allison, A., Kesteven, J.L., Natera, G., Slater, W., Stein, J.L. & Walker, P. (2000) The BioRap Toolbox: A National Study of Biodiversity Assessment and Planning for Papua New Guinea. Canberra, Australia: CSIRO Press.Google Scholar
O'Connor, S. & Veth, P., eds (2000) East of Wallace's Line: Studies of Past and Present Maritime Cultures of the Indo-Pacific Region. Rotterdam, the Netherlands: A.A. Balkema (Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia 16).Google Scholar
Paijmans, K., ed. (1976) New Guinea Vegetation. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organization and Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Pawley, A. (2006) Explaining the aberrant Austronesian languages of Southeast Melanesia: 150 years of debate. Journal of the Polynesian Society 115: 215–258.Google Scholar
Pawley, A. (2007) The origins of early Lapita culture: the testimony of historical linguistics. In: Oceanic Explorations: Lapita and Western Pacific Settlement, ed. Bedford, S., Sand, C. & Connaughton, S.P., pp. 17–50. Canberra, Australia: ANU E Press (Terra Australis 26).Google Scholar
Pawley, A., Attenborough, R., Golson, J. & Hide, R., eds (2005) Papuan Pasts: Cultural, Linguistic and Biological Histories of Papuan-Speaking Peoples. Canberra, Australia: Australian National University, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies.Google Scholar
Petr, T., ed. (1983) The Purari: Tropical Environment of a High Rainfall River Basin. The Hague, the Netherlands: W. Junk.Google Scholar
Polunin, N. (1984) Do traditional marine ‘reserves’ conserve?: a view of Indonesian and New Guinean evidence. In: Maritime Institutions in the Western Pacific, ed. Ruddle, K. & Akimichi, T., pp. 267–283. Osaka, Japan: National Museum of Ethnology (Senri Ethnological Studies 17).Google Scholar
Richards, A.I. (1957) The concept of culture in Malinowski's work. In: Man and Culture: an Evaluation of the Work of Malinowski, ed. Firth, R., pp. 15–32. London, UK: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Saulei, S.M. & Ellis, J.-A., eds (1998) The Motupore Conference: ICAD Practitioners’ View from the Field. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: PNG Biodiversity Conservation and Resource Management Programme.Google Scholar
Saunders, J.C. (1993 a) Agricultural land use of Papua New Guinea (map with explanatory notes). Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation for Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (PNGRIS Publication 1).Google Scholar
Saunders, J.C. (1993 b) Forest resources of Papua New Guinea (map with explanatory notes). Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation for Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (PNGRIS Publication 2).Google Scholar
Sekhran, N. & Miller, S., eds (1994) Papua New Guinea Country Study on Biological Diversity. Waigani, Papua New Guinea and Nairobi, Kenya: PNG Department of Environment and Conservation and Africa Centre for Resources and Environment.Google Scholar
Shearman, P.L., Ash, J., Mackey, B., Bryan, J.E. & Lokes, B. (2009) Forest conversion and degradation in Papua New Guinea 1972–2002. Biotropica 41: 379–390.Google Scholar
Sillitoe, P. (2004) Interdisciplinary experiences: working with indigenous knowledge in development. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 29 (1): 1–18.Google Scholar
Simberloff, D. & Collins, M.D. (2010) Birds of the Solomon Islands: the domain of the dynamic equilibrium theory and assembly rules, with comments on the taxon cycle. In: The Theory of Island Biogeography Revisited, ed. Loso, J.B. & Ricklefs, R.E., pp. 237–263. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Spriggs, M. (1997) The Island Melanesians. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Steadman, D.W. (2006) Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds. Chicago, IL, USA: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Strathern, M. (1988) The Gender of the Gift: Problems with Women and Problems with Society in Melanesia. Berkeley, CA, USA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Stuart, M. & Sekhran, N. (1996) Developing externally financed greenhouse gas mitigation projects in Papua New Guinea's forestry sector: a review of concepts, opportunities and links to biodiversity conservation. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: PNG Biodiversity Conservation and Resource Management Programme.Google Scholar
Sullivan, M.E. (1991) The impacts of projected climate change on coastal land use in Papua New Guinea. In: Sustainable Development for Traditional Inhabitants of the Torres Strait Region, ed. Lawrence, D. & Cansfield-Smith, T., pp. 33–58. Townsville, Australia: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (Workshop Series 16).Google Scholar
Swadling, P. (1983) How Long Have People Been in the Ok Tedi Impact Region? Boroko, Papua New Guinea: PNG National Museum.Google Scholar
Swadling, P. (1996) Plumes from Paradise: Trade Cycles in Outer Southeast Asia and Their Impact on New Guinea and Nearby Islands until 1920. Boroko, Papua New Guinea: PNG National Museum.Google Scholar
Tainter, J. (2008) Collapse, sustainability, and the environment: how authors choose to fail or succeed. Reviews in Anthropology 37 (4): 342–371.Google Scholar
Terrell, J. & Welsch, R. (1997) Lapita and the temporal geography of prehistory. Antiquity 71: 548–572.Google Scholar
Terrell, J.E., Kelly, K.M. & Rainbird, P. (2001) Foregone conclusions? In search of ‘Papuans’ and ‘Austronesians’. Current Anthropology 42: 97–124.Google Scholar
Trangmar, B.B., Giltrap, D.J., Burgham, S.J. & Savage, T.J. (1995) Land Suitability Assessments for Selected Crops in Papua New Guinea. Canberra, Australia: Australian Agency for International Development (PNGRIS Publication 8).Google Scholar
van Helden, F. (1998) Between Cash and Conviction: the Social Context of the Bismark-Ramu Integrated Conservation and Development Project. Boroko, Papua New Guinea: National Research Institute (Monograph 33).Google Scholar
van Helden, F. (2004) ‘Making do’: integrating ecological and societal considerations for marine conservation in a situation of indigenous resource tenure. In: Challenging Coasts: Transdisciplinary Excursions into Integrated Coastal Zone Development, ed. Visser, L.E., pp. 93–118. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Amsterdam University Press (MARE Publication Series 1).Google Scholar
Wagner, J. (2007) Conservation as development in Papua New Guinea: the view from Blue Mountain. Human Organization 66: 28–37.Google Scholar
Wagner, R. (1975) The Invention of Culture. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Waiko, J. & Jiregari, K. (1982) Conservation in Papua New Guinea: custom and tradition. In: Traditional Conservation in Papua New Guinea: Implications for Today, ed. Morauta, L., Pernetta, J. & Heaney, W., pp. 21–38. Boroko (PNG): Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research.Google Scholar
Watson, J.B. (1965) From hunting to horticulture in the New Guinea highlands. Ethnology 4: 295–309.Google Scholar
Watson, J.B. (1977) Pigs, fodder and the Jones effect in postipomoean New Guinea. Ethnology 16: 57–70.Google Scholar
West, P. (2006) Conservation is Our Government Now: the Politics of Ecology in Papua New Guinea. Durham, NC, USA: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Winslow, J.H., ed. (1977) The Melanesian Environment: Papers Presented at the Ninth Waigani Seminar. Canberra, Australia: Australian National University Press.Google Scholar
Womersley, J.S. & McAdam, J.B. (1957) The forests and forest conditions in the territories of Papua and New Guinea. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: Government Printer.Google Scholar
World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) Our Common Future: the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wurm, S.A. & Hattori, S., eds (1981) Language Atlas of the Pacific. Canberra, Australia: Australian Academy of the Humanities in association with the Japan Academy.Google Scholar
Yen, D.E. (1974) The Sweet Potato in Oceania: An Essay in Ethnobotany. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum Press.Google Scholar
Yen, D.E. (1995) The development of Sahul agriculture with Australia as bystander. In: Transitions: Pleistocene to Holocene in Australia and Papua New Guinea, ed. Allen, J. & O'Connell, J.F., pp. 831–847. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar