Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T19:11:32.450Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Biodiversity in small-scale tropical agroforests: a review of species richness and abundance shifts and the factors influencing them

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 August 2008

BEN R. SCALES  and
STUART J. MARSDEN
BEN R. SCALES
Affiliation:
Applied Ecology Group, Department of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
STUART J. MARSDEN*
Affiliation:
Applied Ecology Group, Department of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
*
*Correspondence: Dr Stuart Marsden Tel: +44 161 247 6215 Fax: +44 161 247 6318 e-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Although small-scale agroforestry systems (swiddens, complex and single-crop-dominated agroforests, and homegardens) form a diverse and important tropical land use, there has been no attempt to collate information on their value for biodiversity. This paper reviews 52 published studies that compared species richness and/or abundance between agroforests and primary forest, and 27 studies that compared biodiversity parameters across agroforests. The former covered a broad range of taxa and geographical areas, but few focused on homegardens, while those comparing across agroforestry systems were biased towards studies of plants (21 studies) and homegardens (13 of 27). Of 43 studies comparing species richness or diversity across habitats, 34 reported lower richness in agroforests than in adjacent forest. There was also high β diversity between primary forests and agroforests. Patterns of abundance shifts were less straightforward, with many species traits (for example diets) being generally poor indicators of response to agricultural disturbance. Among the few trends identified, restricted-range or rare species, and terrestrial and some understorey vertebrates tended to decline most, and open country species, granivores and generalists increased most in agroforests. Variability in biodiversity retention across systems has been linked most strongly to economic function, management intensity and extent of remnant forest within the landscape, as well as more subtle cultural influences. Species richness and abundance generally decrease with increasing prevalence of crop species, more intensive management, decreasing stratum richness and shortening of cultivation cycles. Increasing holding size did not necessarily reduce α diversity. Knowledge of the general effects of small-scale agroforestry on biodiversity is substantial, but the great diversity of systems and species responses mean that it is difficult to accurately predict biodiversity losses and gains at a local level. Further work is required on the influence of spatial and temporal structure of agricultural holdings on biodiversity retention across agriculture/succession/forest mosaics, how β diversity across individual holdings influences biodiversity across landscapes, and ultimately on how agricultural intensification can be best managed to minimize future losses of biodiversity from tropical landscapes.

Keywords

agroforestrybiodiversityhomegardensforest gardensswiddentropical agriculture
Type
Papers
Information
Environmental Conservation , Volume 35 , Issue 2 , June 2008 , pp. 160 - 172
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation for Environmental Conservation 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Albuquerque, U.P., Andrade, L.H.C. & Caballero, J. (2005) Structure and floristics of homegardens in Northeastern Brazil. Journal of Arid Environments 62: 491–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altieri, M.A. (1999) The ecological role of biodiversity in agroecosystems. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 74: 19–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrade, G.I. & Rubio-Torgler, H. (1994) Sustainable use of the tropical rain-forest: evidence from the avifauna in a shifting-cultivation habitat mosaic in the Colombian Amazon. Conservation Biology 8: 545–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angelsen, A. & Kaimowitz, D. (1999) Rethinking the causes of deforestation: lessons from economic models. The World Bank Research Observer 14: 73–98.Google Scholar
Attiwill, P.M. (1994) The disturbance of forest ecosystems: the ecological basis for conservative management. Forest Ecology and Management 63: 247–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Augusseau, X., Nikiema, P. & Torquebiau, E. (2006) Tree biodiversity, land dynamics and farmers' strategies on the agricultural frontier of southwestern Burkina Faso. Biodiversity and Conservation 15: 613–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Backes, M.M. (2001) The role of indigenous trees for the conservation of biocultural diversity in traditional agroforestry land-use systems: the Bungoma case study. Agroforestry Systems 52: 119–132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, J., Schulze, C.H., Linsenmair, K.E. & Fiedler, K. (2002) From forest to farmland: diversity of geometrid moths along two habitat gradients on Borneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology 18: 33–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beecher, N.A., Johnson, R.J., Brandle, J.R., Case, R.M. & Young, L.J. (2002) Agroecology of birds in organic and nonorganic farmland. Conservation Biology 16: 1620–1631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benton, T.G., Vickery, J.A. & Wilson, J.D. (2003) Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 18: 182–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beukema, H. & van Noordwijk, M. (2004) Terrestrial pteridophytes as indicators of a forest-like environment in rubber production systems in the lowlands of Jambi, Sumatra. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 104: 63–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bloemers, G.F., Hodda, M., Lambshead, P.J.D., Lawton, J.H. & Wanless, F.R. (1997) The effects of forest disturbance on diversity of tropical soil nematodes. Oecologia 111: 575–582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowman, D.M.J.S., Woinarski, J.C.Z., Sands, D.P.A., Wells, A. & McShane, V.J. (1990) Slash-and-burn agriculture in the wet coastal lowlands of Papua New Guinea: the response of birds, butterflies and reptiles. Journal of Biogeography 17: 227–239.Google Scholar
Brooks, T.M., Pimm, S.L. & Oyugi, J.O. (1999) Time lag between deforestation and bird extinction in tropical forest fragments. Conservation Biology 13: 1140–1150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, S. & Lugo, A.E. (1990) Tropical secondary forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology 6: 1–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budiadi, Kanazawa Y., Ishii, H.T., Sabarnurdin, M. S. & Suryanto, P. (2005) Productivity of kayu putih (Melaleuca leucadendron LINN) tree plantation managed in non-timber forest production systems in Java, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 64: 143–155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christanty, L., Abdoellah, O.S, Marten, G.G. & Iskandar, J. (1986) Traditional agroforestry in West-Java: the pekerangan (homegarden) and kebun-talun (annual-perennial rotation) cropping system. In: Traditional Agriculture in Southeast Asia: a Human Ecology Perspective, ed. Marten, G.G., pp. 132–158. Boulder, CO, USA: East-West Environment and Policy Institute University of Hawaii, USA and Westview Press.Google Scholar
Cleary, D.F.R. & Mooers, A.O. (2006) Burning and logging differentially affect endemic vs. widely distributed butterfly species in Borneo. Diversity and Distributions 12: 409–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleary, D.F.R., Boyle, T.J.B., Setyawati, T., Anggraeni, C.D., Van Loon, E.E. & Menken, S.B.J. (2007) Bird species and traits associated with logged and unlogged forest in Borneo. Ecological Applications 17: 1184–1197.Google Scholar
Corlett, R.T. (1995) Tropical secondary forests. Progress in Physical Geography 19: 159–172.Google Scholar
Cullen, L., Schmink, M., Padua, C.V. & Morato, M.I.R. (2001) Agroforestry benefit zones: a tool for the conservation and management of Atlantic forest fragments, Sao Paolo, Brazil. Natural Areas Journal 21: 346–356.Google Scholar
Daily, G.C. & Ehrlich, P.R. (1995) Preservation of biodiversity in small rain-forest patches: rapid evaluations using butterfly trapping. Biodiversity and Conservation 4: 35–55.Google Scholar
Dalle, S.P. & de Blois, S. (2006) Shorter fallow cycles affect the availability of noncrop plant resources in a shifting cultivation system. Ecology and Society 11: Art. No. 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Das, T. & Das, A.K. (2005) Inventorying plant biodiversity in homegardens: a case study in Barak Valley, Assam, North East India. Current Science 89: 155–163.Google Scholar
De Rouw, A. (1993) Regeneration by sprouting in slash-and-burn rice cultivation, Tai rain-forest, Cote-d'Ivoire. Journal of Tropical Ecology 9: 387–408.Google Scholar
Diemont, S.A.W. & Martin, J.F. (2005) Management impacts on the trophic diversity of nematode communities in an indigenous agroforestry system of Chiapas, Mexico. Pedobiologia 49: 325–334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donald, P.F., Evans, A.D., Muirhead, L.B., Buckingham, D.L., Kirby, W.B. & Schmitt, S.I.A. (2002) Survival rates, causes of failure and productivity of skylark Alauda arvensis nests on lowland farmland. Ibis 144: 652–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donald, P.F. (2004) Biodiversity impacts of some agricultural commodity production systems. Conservation Biology 18: 17–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dover, N. & Talbot, L.M. (1987) To Feed the Earth: Agro-ecology for Sustainable Development. Washington, DC, USA: World Resources Institute.Google Scholar
Dumbrell, A.J. & Hill, J.K. (2005) Impacts of selective logging on canopy and ground assemblages of tropical forest butterflies: implications for sampling. Biological Conservation 125: 123–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, R.R. (2000) Isolated trees as foci of diversity in active and fallow fields. Biological Conservation 95: 317–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dwyer, P.D. (1984) From garden to forest: small rodents and plant succession in Papua New Guinea. Australian Mammal 7: 29–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eilu, G., Obua, J., Tumuhairwe, J.K. & Nkwine, C. (2003) Traditional farming and plant species diversity in agricultural landscapes of south-western Uganda. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 99: 125–134.Google Scholar
Eggleton, P., Bignell, D.E., Hauser, S., Dibog, L., Norgrove, L. & Madong, B. (2002) Termite diversity across an anthropogenic disturbance gradient in the humid forest zone of West Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 90: 189–202.Google Scholar
Eggleton, P., Bignell, D.E., Sands, W.A., Mawdsley, N.A., Lawton, J.H., Wood, T.G. & Bignell, N.C. (1996) The diversity, abundance and biomass of termites under differing levels of disturbance in the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve, southern Cameroon. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 351: 51–68.Google Scholar
Estrada, A., Coates Estrada, R. & Meritt Jr, D.A. (1997) Anthropogenic landscape changes and avian diversity at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 19–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewium, S.C., Badejo, M.A. & Ajayl, O.O. (1997) Ants of forest and fallow plots in Nigeria. Biotropica 29: 93–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferguson, B.G., Vandermeer, J., Morales, H. & Griffith, D.M. (2003) Post-agricultural succession in El Peten, Guatemala. Conservation Biology 17: 818–828.Google Scholar
Fermon, H., Waltert, M., Vane-Wright, R.I. & Mühlenberg, M. (2005) Forest use and vertical stratification in fruit-feeding butterflies of Sulawesi, Indonesia: impacts for conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 333–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernandes, E.C.M. & Nair, P.K.R. (1986) An evolution of the structure and function of tropical homegardens. Agricultural Systems 21: 279–310.Google Scholar
Fiedler, K. & Schulze, C.H. (2004) Forest modification affects diversity (but not dynamics) of speciose tropical pyraloid moth communities. Biotropica 36: 615–627.Google Scholar
Fimbel, C. (1994) Ecological correlates of species success in modified habitats may be disturbance-specific and site-specific: the primates of Tiwai island. Conservation Biology 8: 106–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Floren, A., Freking, A., Biehl, M. & Linsenmair, K.E. (2001) Anthropogenic disturbance changes the structure of arboreal tropical ant communities. Ecography 24: 547–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujisaka, S., Hurtado, L. & Uribe, R.A. (1996) Working classification of slash-and-burn agricultural systems. Agroforestry Systems 34: 151–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujisaka, S., Escobar, G. & Veneklaas, E. (1998) Plant community diversity relative to human land uses in an Amazon forest colony. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 41–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gajaseni, J. & Gajaseni, N. (1999) Ecological rationalities of the traditional homegarden system in the Chao Phraya Basin, Thailand. Agroforestry Systems 46: 3–23.Google Scholar
Garcia-Fernandez, C., Casado, M.A. & Ruiz Perez, M. (2003) Benzoin gardens in north Sumatra, Indonesia: effects of management on tree diversity. Conservation Biology 17: 829–836.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garcia-Fernandez, C. & Casado, M.A. (2005) Forest recovery in managed agroforestry systems: the case of benzoin and rattan gardens in Indonesia. Forest Ecology and Management 214: 158–169.Google Scholar
Gathorne-Hardy, F.J., Jones, D.T. & Syaukani, (2002) A regional perspective on the effects of human disturbance on the termites of Sundaland. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 1991–2006.Google Scholar
Geist, H.J., & Lambin, E.F. (2001) What drives tropical deforestation? A meta-analysis of proximate and underlying causes of deforestation based on subnational case-study evidence. LUCC Report Series No.4. LUCC International project office. Louvain-la-Neuve, France.Google Scholar
Ghazoul, J. (2002) Impact of logging on the richness and diversity of forest butterflies in a tropical dry forest in Thailand. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 521–541.Google Scholar
Gillison, A.N., Jones, D.T., Susilo, F.X. & Bignell, D.E. (2003) Vegetation indicates diversity of soil macroinvertebrates: a case study with termites along a land-use intensification gradient in lowland Sumatra. Organism, Diversity and Evolution 3: 111–126.Google Scholar
Gliessman, S.R. (1998) Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Chelsea, MI, USA: Ann Arbor Press.Google Scholar
Glor, R.E., Flecker, A.S., Benard, M.F. & Power, A.G. (2001) Lizard diversity and agricultural disturbance in a Caribbean forest landscape. Biodiversity and Conservation 10: 711–723.Google Scholar
Gouyon, A., de Foresta, H., & Levang, P. (1993) Does ‘jungle rubber’ deserve its name? An analysis of rubber agroforestry systems in southeast Sumatra. Agroforestry Systems 22: 181–206.Google Scholar
Gray, M.A., Baldauf, S.L., Mayhew, P.J. & Hill, J.K. (2007) The response of avian feeding guilds to tropical forest disturbance. Conservation Biology 21: 133–141.Google Scholar
Groombridge, B. & Jenkins, M.D. (2000) Global Biodiversity. Earth's Living Resources in the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: World Conservation Press.Google Scholar
Gubista, K.R. (1999) Small mammals of the Ituri Forest, Zaire: diversity and abundance in ecologically distinct habitats. Journal of Mammalogy 80: 252–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halladay, P. & Gilmour, D.A. (1995) Conserving Biodiversity Outside Protected Areas: The Role of Traditional Agro-ecosystems. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.Google Scholar
Harvey, C.A., Gonzalez, J. & Somarriba, E. (2006) Dung beetle and terrestrial mammal diversity in forests, indigenous agroforestry systems and plantain monocultures in Talamanca, Costa Rica. Biodiversity and Conservation 15: 555–585.Google Scholar
Hemp, A. (2006) The banana forests of Kilimanjaro: biodiversity and conservation of the Chagga homegardens. Biodiversity and Conservation 15: 1193–1217.Google Scholar
Jensen, M. (1993) Soil conditions, vegetation structure and biomass of a Javanese homegarden. Agroforestry Systems 24: 171–186.Google Scholar
Johns, A.D. (1991) Responses of Amazonian rain forest birds to habitat modification. Journal of Tropical Ecology 7: 417–437.Google Scholar
Johns, A.G. (2004) Timber Production and Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Rain Forests. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, D.T., Susilo, F.X., Bignell, D.E., Hardiwinoto, S., Gillison, A.N. & Eggleton, P. (2003) Termite assemblage collapse along a land-use intensification gradient in lowland central Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 380–391.Google Scholar
Kammesheidt, L. (1998) The role of tree sprouts in the restorations of stand-structure and species diversity in tropical moist forest after slash-and-burn agriculture in Eastern Paraguay. Plant Ecology 139 (2): 155–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaya, M., Kammesheidt, L., Weidelt, H.J. (2002) The forest garden system of Saparua island, Central Maluku, Indonesia, and its role in maintaining tree species diversity. Agroforestry Systems 54: 225–234.Google Scholar
Kehlenbeck, K. & Maass, B.L. (2004) Crop diversity and classification of homegardens in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 63: 53–62.Google Scholar
Kessler, M., Kebler, P.J.A., Gradstein, S.R., Bach, K., Schmull, M. & Pitopang, R. (2005) Tree diversity in primary forest and different land use systems in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 547–560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, A.M., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2006) Rain forest promotes trophic interactions and diversity of trap-nesting hymenoptera in adjacent agroforestry. Journal of Animal Ecology 75: 315–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Komar, O. (2006) Ecology and conservation of birds in coffee plantations: a critical review. Bird Conservation International 16: 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kricher, J.C. & Davis, W.E. (1992) Patterns of avian species richness in disturbed and undisturbed habitats in Belize. In: Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Landbirds, ed. Hagan, J.M. & Johnston, D.W., pp. 240–246. Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution Press.Google Scholar
Kumar, B.M. & Nair, P.K.R. (2004) The enigma of tropical homegardens. Agroforestry Systems 61: 135–152.Google Scholar
Kumar, B.M., George, S.J. & Chinnamani, S. (1994) Diversity, structure and standing stock of wood in the homegardens of Kerala in peninsular India. Agroforestry Systems 25: 243–262.Google Scholar
Lamont, S.R., Eshbaugh, W.H. & Greenberg, A.M. (1999) Species composition, diversity, and use of homegardens among three Amazonian villages. Economic Botany 53: 312–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawrence, D. (2004) Erosion of tree diversity during 200 years of shifting cultivation in Bornean Rain Forest. Ecological Applications 14: 1855–1869.Google Scholar
Lawrence, D.C. (1996) Trade-offs between rubber production and maintenance of diversity: the structure of rubber gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 34: 83–100.Google Scholar
Lawrence, D.C. & Mogea, J.P. (1996) A preliminary analysis of tree diversity in the landscape under shifting cultivation north of Gunung Palung National Park. Tropical Biodiversity 3: 297–319.Google Scholar
Lawton, J.H., Bignell, D.E., Bolton, B., Bloemers, G.F., Eggleton, P., Hammond, P.M., Hodda, M., Holt, R.D., Larsen, T.B., Mawdsley, N.A., Stork, N.E., Shrivastava, D.S. & Watt, A.D. (1998) Biodiversity inventories, indicator taxa and effects of habitat modification in tropical rain forest. Nature 391: 72–76.Google Scholar
Linares, O.F. (1976) Garden hunting in the American tropics. Human Ecology 4: 331–349.Google Scholar
Long, C.L., Cai, K., Marr, K., Guo, X. R. & Ouyang, Z.Q. (2003) Lacquer-based agroforestry system in western Yunnan, China. Agroforestry Systems 57: 109–116.Google Scholar
Loranger, G., Ponge, J.F., Blanchart, E. & Lavelle, P. (1998) Influence of agricultural practices on arthropod communities in a vertisol (Martinique). European Journal of Soil Biology 34: 157–165.Google Scholar
Mackay, W.P., Rebeles, A., Arredondo, H.C., Rodriguez, A.D., Gonzalez, D.A. & Vinson, S.B. (1991) Impact of the slashing and burning of a tropical rain-forest on the native ant fauna (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Sociobiology 18: 257–268.Google Scholar
Marjokorpi, A. & Ruokolainen, K. (2003) The role of traditional forest gardens in the conservation of tree species in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 799–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsden, S.J. & Pilgrim, J.D. (2003 a) Diversity and abundance of fruiting trees in primary forest, selectively logged forest, and gardens on New Britain, PNG. Tropical Biodiversity 8: 15–29.Google Scholar
Marsden, S.J. & Pilgrim, J.D. (2003 b) Factors influencing the abundance of parrots and hornbills in primary and selectively logged forests and forest gardens on New Britain, PNG. Ibis 145: 45–53.Google Scholar
Marsden, S.J., Symes, C.T. & Mack, A.L. (2006) The response of a New Guinean avifauna to conversion of forest to small-scale agriculture. Ibis 148: 629–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathieu, J., Rossi, J.P., Mora, P., Lavelle, P., Martins, P.F.D., Rouland, C. & Grimaldi, M. (2005) Recovery of soil macrofauna communities after forest clearance in Eastern Amazonia, Brazil. Conservation Biology 19: 1598–1605.Google Scholar
Matson, P.A., Parton, W.J., Power, A.G. & Swift, M.J. (1997) Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science 227: 504–509.Google Scholar
Medellín, R.A. & Equihua, M. (1998) Mammal species richness and habitat use in rainforest and abandoned agricultural fields in Chiapas, Mexico. Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 13–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medellín, R.A., Equihua, M. & Amin, M.A. (2000) Bat diversity and abundance as indicators of disturbance in Neotropical rainforests. Conservation Biology 14: 1666–1675.Google Scholar
Mendez, V.E., Lok, R. & Somarriba, E. (2001) Interdisciplinary analysis of homegardens in Nicaragua: micro-zonation, plant use and socioeconomic importance. Agroforestry Systems 51: 85–96.Google Scholar
Mertens, B., Sunderlin, W.D., Ndoye, O. & Lambin, E.F. (2000) Impact of macroeconomic change on deforestation in south Cameroon: integration of household survey and remotely-sensed data. World Development 28: 983–999.Google Scholar
Michon, G. & de Foresta, H. (1991) Complex agroforestry systems and the conservation of biological diversity: I. Agroforests in Indonesia: the link between two worlds. In: Proceedings of the international conference on tropical biodiversity ‘In Harmony with Nature’, 12–16 June, 1990, ed. Kheong, Yap Son & Win, Lee Su, pp. 457–473. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Malayan Nature Society.Google Scholar
Michon, G. & de Foresta, H. (1995) The Indonesian agro-forest model. In: Conserving Biodiversity Outside Protected Areas. The Role of Traditional Ecosystems, ed. Halladay, P. & Gilmour, D.A., pp. 90–106. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN.Google Scholar
Michon, G. & Mary, F. (1990) Transforming traditional homegardens. In: Tropical Home Gardens, ed. Landauer, K. & Brazil, M., pp. 169–185. Tokyo, Japan: United Nations University Press, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Michon, G., Mary, F. & Bompard, J. (1986) Multistoried agroforestry garden system in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 4: 315–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, P.M. & Kauffman, J.B. (1998) Effects of slash and burn agriculture on species abundance and composition of a tropical deciduous forest. Forest Ecology and Management 103: 191–201.Google Scholar
Moreno-Black, G., Somnasang, P. & Thamathawan, S. (1996) Cultivating continuity and creating change: women's home garden practices in northeastern Thailand. Agriculture and Human Values 13: 3–11.Google Scholar
Myers, N. (1991) Tropical forests: present status and future outlook. Climatic Change 19: 3–32.Google Scholar
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, G.A.B. & Kent, J. (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naidoo, R. (2004) Species richness and community composition of songbirds in a tropical forest-agricultural landscape. Animal Conservation 7: 93–105.Google Scholar
Naughton-Treves, L., Mena, J.L., Treves, A., Alvarez, N. & Radeloff, V.C. (2003) Wildlife survival beyond park boundaries: the impact of slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting on mammals in Tambopata, Peru. Conservation Biology 17: 1106–1117.Google Scholar
Nepal, S.K. (2002) Involving indigenous peoples in protected area management: comparative perspectives from Nepal, Thailand, and China. Environmental Management 30: 748–763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oates, J.F. (1996) Habitat alteration, hunting and conservation folivorous primates in African rainforests. Australian Journal of Ecology 21: 1–9.Google Scholar
Padoch, C. & Peters, C. (1993) Managed forest gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: Perspectives on Biodiversity: Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development, ed. Potter, C., Cohen, D. and Janczewski, D.. pp. 167–176. Washington, DC, USA: American Association for the Advancement of; Science.Google Scholar
Padoch, C. & de Jong, W. (1991) The house gardens of Santa Rosa: diversity and variability in an Amazonian agricultural system. Economic Botany 45: 166–75.Google Scholar
Parikesit, Takeuchi, K., Tsunekawa, A. & Abdoellah, O.S. (2004) Kebon tatangkalan: a disappearing agroforest in the Upper Citarum Watershed, West Java, Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems 63: 171–182.Google Scholar
Pate, E., Ndiaye, N., Thioulouse, J., Villenave, C., Bongers, T., Cadet, P. & Debouzie, D. (2000) Successional trends in the characteristics of soil nematodes communities in cropped and fallow lands in Senegal (Sonkorong). Applied Soil Ecology 14: 5–15.Google Scholar
Perfecto, I., Rice, R.C., Greenberg, R. & Van Der Voort, M.E. (1996) Shade coffee: a disappearing refuge for biodiversity. Bioscience 46: 598–608.Google Scholar
Rice, R.A. & Greenberg, R. (2000) Cacao cultivation and the conservation of biological diversity. Ambio 29: 167–174.Google Scholar
Rico-Gray, V., Garciafranco, J.G., Chemas, A., Puch, A. & Sima, P. (1990) Species composition, similarity, and structure of Mayan home-gardens in Tixepeual and Tixacacaltuyub, Yucatan, Mexico. Economic Botany 44: 470–487.Google Scholar
Round, P.D., Gale, G.A. & Brockelman, W.Y. (2006) A comparison of bird communities in mixed fruit orchards and natural forest at Khao Luang, southern Thailand. Biodiversity and Conservation 15: 2873–2891.Google Scholar
Safran, E.B. & Godoy, R.A. (1993) Effects of government policies on smallholder palm cultivation: an example from Borneo. Human Organization 52: 294–298.Google Scholar
Schläpfer, F., Schmid, B. & Seidl, L. (1999) Expert estimates about effects of biodiversity on ecosystem processes and services. Oikos 84: 346–352.Google Scholar
Schroth, G. & Harvey, C.A. (2007) Biodiversity conservation in cocoa production landscapes: an overview. Biodiversity and Conservation 16: 2237–2244.Google Scholar
Schulze, C.H., Waltert, M., Kessler, P.J.A., Pitopang, R., Shahabuddin Veddeler, D., Mühlenberg, M., Gradstein, S.R., Leuschner, C., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2004) Biodiversity indicator groups of tropical land-use systems: comparing plants, birds and insects. Ecological Applications 14: 1321–1333.Google Scholar
Sekercioglu, C.H., Ehrlich, P.R., Daily, G.C., Aygen, D., Goehring, D. & Sandi, R.F. (2002) Disappearance of insectivorous birds from tropical forest fragments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99: 263–267.Google Scholar
Shankar Raman, T.R. (1996) Impact of shifting cultivation on diurnal squirrels and primates in Mizoram, northeast India: a preliminary study. Current Science 70: 747–750.Google Scholar
Shankar Raman, T.R. (2001) Effect of slash-and-burn shifting cultivation on rainforest birds in Mizoram, Northeast India. Conservation Biology 15: 685–698.Google Scholar
Shankar Raman, T.R., Rawat, G.S. & Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1998) Recovery of tropical rainforest avifauna in relation to vegetation succession following shifting cultivation in Mizoram, north-east India. Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 214–231.Google Scholar
Sinha, B, Hadauria, T., Ramarkrishnan, P.S., Saxena, K.G. & Maikhuri, R.K. (2003) Impact of landscape modification on earthworm diversity and abundance in the Hariyali sacred landscape, Garhwal Himilaya. Pedobiologia 47: 357–370.Google Scholar
Soini, E. (2006) Bird diversity and land use on the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro and the adjacent plains, Tanzania. African Zoology 41: 193–209.Google Scholar
Stork, N.E., Srivastava, D.S., Watt, A.D. & Larsen, T.B. (2003) Butterfly diversity and silvicultural practice in lowland rainforests of Cameroon. Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 387–410.Google Scholar
Swift, M.J. & Anderson, J.M. (1994) Biodiversity and ecosystem function in agricultural systems. In: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function, ed. Schulze, E.D. & Mooney, H.A., pp. 15–41. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Szinicz, G., Martin, K. & Sauerborn, J. (2005) Abundance of selected insect species in natural and agricultural habitats of a tropical upland (Leyte, Philippines). Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment 111: 104–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thiollay, J.M. (1995) The role of traditional agroforests in the conservation of rain forest bird diversity in Sumatra. Conservation Biology 9: 335–353.Google Scholar
Thiollay, J.M. (1999) Responses of an avian community to rain forest degradation. Biodiversity and Conservation 8: 513–534.Google Scholar
Tilman, D., Cassman, K.G., Matson, P.A., Naylor, P. & Polasky, S. (2002) Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature 418: 671–677.Google Scholar
Torquebiau, E. (1992) Are tropical agroforestry homegardens sustainable? Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 41: 189–207.Google Scholar
Uhl, C. (1987) Factors controlling succession following slash-and-burn agriculture in Amazonia. Journal of Ecology 60: 675–695.Google Scholar
Vandermeer, J. & Perfecto, I. (1997) The agroecosystem: a need for the conservation biologist's lens. Conservation Biology 11: 591–592.Google Scholar
Waltert, M., Bobo, K.S., Sainge, N.M., Fermon, H. & Muhlenberg, M. (2005) From forest to farmland: habitat effects on Afrotropical forest bird diversity. Ecological Applications 15: 1351–1366.Google Scholar
Wang, Z.J. & Young, S.S. (2003) Differences in bird diversity between two swidden agricultural sites in mountainous terrain, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China. Biological Conservation 110: 231–243.Google Scholar
Wezel, A. & Bender, S. (2003) Plant species diversity of homegardens of Cuba and its significance for household food supply. Agroforestry Systems 57: 39–49.Google Scholar
Wezel, A. & Ohl, J. (2005) Does remoteness from urban centres influence plant diversity in homegardens and swidden fields? A case study from the Matsiguenka in the Amazonian rain forest of Peru. Agroforestry Systems 65: 241–251.Google Scholar
Wiersum, K.F. (2004) Forest gardens as an ‘intermediate’ land-use system in the nature-culture continuum: charactersitics and future potential. Agroforestry Systems 61: 123–134.Google Scholar
Wilkie, D.S. & Finn, J.T. (1990) Slash-burn cultivation and mammal abundance in the Ituri Forest, Zaire. Biotropica 22: 90–99.Google Scholar
Wunderle, J.M. Jr, Diaz, A., Vlazquez, I. & Scharron, R. (1987) Forest openings and the distribution of understory birds in a Puerto Rican rainforest. Wilson Bulletin 99: 22–37.Google Scholar
Zapfack, L., Engwald, S., Sonke, B., Achoundong, G. & Madong, B.A. (2002) The impact of land conversion on plant biodiversity in the forest zone of Cameroon. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 2047–2061.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Scales and Marsden supplementary material

Supplementary table

Download Scales and Marsden supplementary material(File)
File 143.9 KB