Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T06:44:51.712Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Drought-accelerated Parasitism of Conifers in the Mountain Ranges of Northern California

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 August 2009

James M. Page
James M. Page
Affiliation:
Department of Environmental Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Drought conditions in Northern California during 1975–77 caused widespread mortality in conifer forests mainly from attacks by disease organisms—including dwarf mistletoes and Fungi—and from epidemic outbreaks of various bark beetles. A federal survey has estimated the volume losses sustained through the affected four years (1975–79) as 9.6 thousand million board feet (45.3 million cubic metres) on 6.3 million acres (2.55 million ha) of national forest. As the dominant host species in afflicted forests is Pinus ponderosa, the most destructive agents have been the parasites of this species—primarily the Western Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis) and the Western Dwarf Mistletoe (Arceuthobium campylopodum). However, interrelationships between many stress-inducing factors may be of more significance than the direct attack by any single parasitic species on a host.

Three approaches to the reduction of conifer losses have been studied. The first involves the use of silvicultural practices based on the elimination of susceptible, or high-risk, trees. This is most applicable in countering bark beetles which have the mobility and selectivity to reach potential hosts over large areas.

The second approach is direct control, or the physical removal or destruction of parasites. The steady spread of dwarf mistletoe, formerly contained by natural fire, can only be slowed through pruning, logging, or burning. Bark beetles can be directly controlled if the work is done before new broods hatch and mature. Toxic pesticides such as Lindane have proven ineffective—mainly for economic reasons, but also due to serious reservations among some foresters about detrimental effects on the forest ecosystem. Sex attractants have been used to draw bark beetles into trees of which the removal is planned.

The third approach, applicable to bark beetles, is biological control, or reliance on organisms—such as lizards, woodpeckers, predaceous beetles and their larvae, parasitic hymenopterans, and various Fungi, which in some cases the forester has options to encourage or discourage. At the very least these controls suppress bark beetle populations when normal precipitation patterns return.

Unfortunately, the ideal of a natural equilibrium being reached solely with the use of biological controls is unrealistic. The most fundamental stress on the commercial forests of California is human use, in spite of occasional drought-accelerated epidemic losses to parasites. Salvage must continue to be aggressively pushed upon a reluctant industry, but, above all, more flexible and immediate responses to the first signs of increasing bark-beetle activity, coupled with indirect, pre-epidemic silvicultural practices based on the broader lessons of forest parasitology, must be developed.

Type
Main Papers
Information
Environmental Conservation , Volume 8 , Issue 3 , Autumn 1981 , pp. 217 - 226
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation for Environmental Conservation 1981

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Bega, R. V. (1962). Tree killing by Fomes annosus in a genetics arboretum. Plant Disease Reporter, 46, pp. 107–10, illustr.Google Scholar
Bega, R. V. (1963). Fomes annosus. Presented 27 August 1962 at the 54th meeting of the American Phytopathological Society at Corvallis, Oregon. Published in Phytopathology, 53, pp. 1120–1136, illustr.Google Scholar
Berryman, A. A. (1970). Evaluation of insect predators of the Western Pine Beetle. Pp. 102–12 in Studies on the Population Dynamics of the Western Pine Beetle (Ed. Stark, R. W. & Dahlsten, D. L.). Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California: iv + 174 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Berryman, A. A., Otvos, I. S., Dahlsten, D. L. & Stark, R. W. (1970). Interactions and effects of the insect parasite, insect predator, and avian predator complex. Pp. 147–54 in Studies on the Population Dynamics of the Western Pine Beetle (Ed. Stark, R. W. & Dahlsten, D. L.). Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California: iv + 174 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Boyce, J. S. (1948). Forest Pathology (2d edn). McGraw-Hill, New York, NY: xii + 550 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Chamberlin, W. J. (1939). The Bark and Timber Beetles of North America. Oregon State College Co-op Association, Corvallis, Oregon: vi + 513 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Dahlsten, D. L. (1976). Lindane: An undesirable approach to bark beetle control. Pp. 16–21 in Lindane in Forestry… a Continuing Controversy (Ed. Koerber, T. W.). US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-14; Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: ii + 30 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Dahlsten, D. L. & Bushing, R. W. (1970). Insect parasites of the Western Pine Beetle. Pp. 113–9 in Studies on the Population Dynamics of the Western Pine Beetle (Ed. Stark, R. W. & Dahlsten, D. L.). Division of Agricultural Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, California: iv + 174 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Dunning, D. (1928). A tree classification for the selection forests of the Sierra Nevada. Journal of Agricultural Research, 36, pp. 755–71, illustr.Google Scholar
Felix, L. S., Parmeter, J. R. & Uhrenholdt, B. (undated). Fames annosus as a factor in the management of recreational forests. Undated copy of report, US Forest Service, Region 5, San Francisco and University of California, Berkeley, California: 6 pp.Google Scholar
Forest Insect and Disease Management (1977). 1976 and 1977 Drought/Pest-caused Tree Mortality in National Forests of Northern California. US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service, Region 5, San Francisco, California: 8 pp., tables and graphs.Google Scholar
Forest Insect and Disease Management (1978). 1977–78 Drought/Pest-caused Tree Mortality in 12 National Forests in Northern California. US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service, Region 5, San Francisco, California: 8 pp., tables.Google Scholar
Forest Insect and Disease Management (1979). 1978–79 Statewide Tree Mortality in Northern California and Timber Salvage Accomplishments. US Dept of Agriculture/ Forest Service, Region 5, San Francisco, California: 5 pp., tables.Google Scholar
Hammond, Inc. (1967). California Atlas. Hammond, Inc., Fresno, California: 9 maps.Google Scholar
Hawksworth, F. G. (1978 a). Biological factors of dwarf mistletoe in relation to control. Pp. 5–15 in Proceedings of the Symposium on Dwarf Mistletoe Control through Forest Management (11–13 04 1978 at Berkeley, California). US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-31. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: iv + 190 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Hawksworth, F. G. (1978 b). Intermediate cuttings in mistletoe-infested Lodgepole Pine and southwestern Ponderosa Pine stands. Pp. 86–92 in Proceedings of the Symposium on Dwarf Mistletoe Control through Forest Management (11–13 04 1978 at Berkeley, California). US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service General Technical Report PSW- 31. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: iv + 190 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Hawksworth, F. G. & Wiens, D. (1972). Biology and classification of dwarf mistletoes (Arceuthobium). US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 401. Washington, DC: viii + 234 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Hopkins, A. D. (1909). Bark beetles of the genus Dendroctonus. US Dept of Agriculture/Bureau of Entomology, Bulletin No. 83, part 1: 169 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Intorf, P. H. (1978). Evaluation and success of dwarf mistletoe control in California's east-side Jeffrey Pine type. Pp. 113'6 in Proceedings of the Symposium on Dwarf Mistletoe Control through Forest Management (11–13 04 1978 at Berkeley, California). US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-31. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: iv + 190 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Keen, F. P. (1936). Relative susceptibility of Ponderosa Pines to bark beetle attack. Journal of Forestry, 34, pp. 919–27, illustr.Google Scholar
Keen, F. P. (1946). Entomology in western pine silviculture. Pan-Pacific Entomologist, 22, pp. 1–8.Google Scholar
Miller, J. M. & Keen, F. P. (1960). Biology and control of the Western Pine Beetle. Miscellaneous Publication No. 800. US Dept of Agriculture, Washington, DC: viii + 381 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (1971–1979). Climatological Data for California: Total Precipitation and Departures from Normal, from Annual Summaries. National Climatic Center, Asheville, North Carolina: varying pagination.Google Scholar
Otvos, I. S. (1970). Avian predation of the Western Pine Beetle. Pp. 119–27 in Studies on the Population Dynamics of the Western Pine Beetle (Ed. Stark, R. W. & Dahlsten, D. L.). University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, Berkeley, California: iv + 174 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Person, H. L. (1928). Tree selection by the Western Pine Beetle. Journal of Forestry, 26, pp. 564–78, illustr.Google Scholar
Person, H. L. (1940). The clerid Thanasimus lecontei (Wolc.) as a factor in the control of the Western Pine Beetle. Journal of Forestry, 38, pp. 390–6, illustr.Google Scholar
Roth, L. F. (1978). Genetic control of dwarf mistletoe. Pp. 69–72 in Proceedings of the Symposium on Dwarf Mistletoe Control through Forest Management (11–13 04 1978 at Berkeley, California). US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-31. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: iv + 190 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Salman, K. A. & Bongberg, J. W. (1942). Logging high-risk trees to control insects in the pine stands of northeastern California. Journal of Forestry, 40, pp. 533–9.Google Scholar
Scharpf, R. F. (1978 a). Control of dwarf mistletoe on true firs in the West. Pp. 117–23 in Proceedings of the Symposium on Dwarf Mistletoe Control through Forest Management (11–13 04 1978 at Berkeley, California). US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-31. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: iv + 190 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Scharpf, R. F. (1978 b). Chapter 5: Mistletoes. Pp. 121–41 in Diseases of Pacific Coast Conifers. US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service Agricultural Handbook No. 521. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: iv + 206 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Smith, R. H. (1976). Low concentration of Lindane plus induced attraction traps Mountain Pine Beetle. US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service Research Note PSW-316: 5 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Smith, R. S. (1978). Chapter 6: Root diseases. Pp. 142–56 in Diseases of Pacific Coast Conifers. US Dept of Agriculture/Forest Service Agricultural Handbook No. 521. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California: iv + 206 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Smith, R. S., Bega, R. V. & Tarry, J. (1966). Additional hosts of Fomes annosus in California. Plant Disease Reporter, 50, p. 181.Google Scholar
Stark, R. W. (1966). The organization and analytical procedures required by a large ecological systems study. Pp. 37–68 in Systems Analysis in Ecology (Ed. Watt, Kenneth). Academic Press, New York, NY: xiv + 276 pp., illustr.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stark, R. W. (1970). Introduction. Pp. 1–5 in Studies on the Population Dynamics of the Western Pine Beetle (Ed. Stark, R. W. & Dahlsten, D. L.). University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, Berkeley, California: iv + 174 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Vité, J. P. & Gara, R. I. (1961). A field method for observation on olfactory responses of bark beetles (Scolytidae) to volatile materials. Boyce Thompson Institute Contributions, 21, pp. 175–82, illustr.Google Scholar
Vité, J. P. & Gara, R. I. (1962). Volatile attractants for Ponderosa Pine attacked by bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Boyce Thompson Institute Contributions, 21, pp. 251–73, illustr.Google Scholar
Wagener, W. W. & Cave, M. S. (1946). Pine killing by the root Fungus, Fomes annosus, in California. Journal of Forestry 44, pp. 47–52, illustr.Google Scholar
Weir, J. R. (1916). Mistletoe injury to conifers in the Northwest. US Dept of Agriculture Bulletin No. 360, Washington, DC: 43 pp., illustr.Google Scholar
Wood, S. L. (1963). A revision of the bark beetle genus Dendroctonus Etichson. Great Basin Naturalist, 23, pp. 1–116, illustr.Google Scholar