Universal access to modern energy services, in terms of access to electricity and to modern cooking facilities, has been recognized as a fundamental challenge for development. Despite strong praise for action and the deployment of large-scale electrification programs and improved cookstove (ICS) distribution campaigns, few studies have shed light on the barriers to, the enablers of and the impacts of access to energy on development outcomes, using rigorous methodologies. This paper reviews this recent strand of research, trying to fill these gaps. The authors focus on the demand-side and household perspective. Their main outcomes of interest are electricity connection and ICS adoption for the analysis of barriers, time allocation, labor market outcomes and welfare for the impact analysis. They provide evidence of significant wellbeing impacts of electrification and mixed evidence for cookstoves.

Estimating the potential impacts of climate change requires understanding the ability of agents to adapt to changes in their climate. This paper uses panel data from India spanning from 1956 to 1999 to investigate the ability of farmers to adapt. To identify adaptation, the author exploits persistent, multidecadal monsoon regimes during which droughts or floods are more common. These regimes generate medium-run variation in average rainfall, and there is spatial variation in the timing of the regimes. Using a fixed-effects strategy, she tests whether farmers have adapted to the medium-run rainfall variation induced by the monsoon regimes. The author finds evidence that farmers adjust their irrigation investments and their crop portfolios in response to the medium-run rainfall variation. However, adaptation only recovers a small fraction of the profits farmers have lost due to adverse climate variation.

This study estimates Indonesian households’ carbon emissions that are attributed to their expenditures in 2005 and 2009 to analyze the pattern, distribution and drivers of their carbon footprint. Employing an input-output-emission-expenditure framework, the authors find a significant difference in household carbon emissions between different affluence levels, regions and educational levels. They also find that, while many household characteristics influence emissions, total expenditure is by far the most important determinant of household emissions, both across households and over time. Consequently, emissions inequality is very similar to expenditure inequality across households. The decomposition analysis confirms that changes in emissions are predominantly due to rising expenditures between the two periods, while expenditure elasticities analysis suggests that the rise in household emissions is mainly caused by the overall rise in total household expenditure, and not by shifting consumption shares among consumption categories. The paper discusses policy options for Indonesia to reduce this very strong expenditure–emissions link.

There is ample evidence that canal systems often fail to reach their design capacity. This study argues that inefficient allocation of water within canals is one cause. This study collects precise measures of farm-level water withdrawals using flow meters in a canal in Pakistan. These data reveal that farmers near the head of the canal get more canal water than farmers near the tail, even accounting for conveyance efficiency. The results suggest that improvements in canal water management would yield efficiency gains for the canal.

Does gender matter in people's attitudes and cooperation in community-based natural resource management? If so, how do gender differences in conservation-related attitudes help or hinder sustaining the commons? Since biases ingrained in community norms and expectations often exclude women from decision making in co-management, it is imperative to find plausible answers to these queries in order to understand gender relations and cooperation in co-management. To this end, the authors conducted psychometric surveys and trust experiments on 196 forest-dependent households in West Bengal, India during 2009–2010. The findings suggest that, despite an overall negative perception about women's involvement in co-management, women are more conservation friendly and pro-social than men. It is also noticed that forest biomass and forest incomes as the indicators of sustainability have increased in those forest communities where women's proportional strength as decision makers is greater and people hold an overall positive conservation attitude.

The authors develop a theoretical model that elucidates the relationship between the quality of governance, the composition of government spending and pollution as a by-product of the consumption process. In particular, they determine the impact of government spending that alleviates market failure such as subsidies to the poor which reduce credit market failure and environmental regulations to correct for pollution externality. It is found that a shift in government spending towards goods that alleviate market failure has countervailing effects – consumption pollution rises due to increases in income, but consumption pollution also falls due to increasing environmental regulations. Conditional on the government adopting a democratic regime, the effect through environmental regulations outweighs the effect through income leading to lower consumption pollution. The authors estimate an empirical model and find that the results support their theoretical predictions.