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Sole Traders? The Role of the Extended Family in Eighteenth-Century Atlantic Business Networks

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 May 2021

Sophie H. Jones Open the ORCID record for Sophie H. Jones [Opens in a new window]  and
Siobhan Talbott Open the ORCID record for Siobhan Talbott [Opens in a new window]
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Abstract

Despite significant developments in understanding the role of women in early-modern business, more is needed to fully understand women’s impact on eighteenth-century trading networks. Further, much less is known about the role of wider family members, especially children, in the eighteenth-century Atlantic economy. The formal documentation that is privileged in business histories does not tell the whole story, and it frequently represents mercantile activity as a pursuit dominated by a patriarch at the center of a trading network. This article explores eighteenth-century familial commercial networks through extensive use of the personal family correspondence of three merchant families who lived and traded within different locales of the northern Atlantic: Hugh Hall, a merchant and vice judge of the admiralty in Barbados; the Black family, who were wine merchants in Bordeaux; and Joseph Symson, a mercer and shopkeeper from Kendal, England. This article will show that women appear as autonomous players with the power and ability to make informed and independent decisions that directed the business interests of their families. Moreover, it includes an assessment of the ways in which merchants cultivated the expertise of their extended families to enhance their commercial networks and advance their business pursuits. Focusing on children who supported or enhanced the prosperity of the family firm, this article emphasizes that their participation was intentional, not incidental. This article asks questions about the emotional consequences of such activity—which have rarely been considered in any detail—as well as the financial benefit of operating in this manner.

Keywords

womenmerchantsnetworks18th century
Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 23 , Issue 4 , December 2022 , pp. 1092 - 1121
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved.

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References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Candlin, Kit, and Pybus, Cassandra. Enterprising Women: Gender, Race, and Power in the Revolutionary Atlantic. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015.Google Scholar
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Doerflinger, Thomas. A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986.Google Scholar
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Haggerty, Sheryllynne. The British-Atlantic Trading Community,1760–1810: Men, Women, And The Distribution of Goods. Leiden: Brill, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Merely for Money”? Business Culture in the British Atlantic, 1750–1815. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Hancock, David. Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735–1785. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
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Talbott, Siobhan. Conflict, Commerce and Franco-Scottish Relations, 1560–1713. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2014.Google Scholar
Truxes, Thomas M. Defying Empire: Trading with the Enemy in Colonial New York. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Van Rensselaer, May King, The Goede Vrouw of Mana-ha-ta: At Home and in Society, 1609–1760. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1898. https://archive.org/details/goedevrouwofmana00vanruoft/page/n3/mode/2up (accessed April 18, 2021).Google Scholar
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Vickers, Daniel. Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630–1830. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.Google Scholar
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Bartolemi, Arnoud, Lemercier, Claire, Rebolledo-Dhuin, Viera, and Sougy, Nadege. “Becoming a Correspondent: The Foundations of New Merchant Relationships in Early Modern French Trade (1730–1820).” Enterprise & Society 20, no. 3 (2019): 533–574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baudine, Isabelle, Jacques, Carré, and Révauger, Cécile. “Introduction.” In The Invisible Woman: Aspects of Women’s Work in Eighteenth-Century Britain, edited by Baudine, Isabelle, Carré, Jacques, and Révauger, Cécile, 1–6. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman. “Women Apprentices in the Trades and Crafts of Early Modern Bristol.” Continuity & Change 6, no. 2 (1991): 227–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becket, John V. Review of An Exact and Industrious Tradesman: The Letterbook of Joseph Symson of Kendal, 1711–1720, edited by Smith, Simon D.. The English Historical Review 118, no. 475 (2003): 227–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleary, Patricia, “‘She Will Be in the Shop’: Women’s Sphere of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia and New York.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 119, no. 3 (1995): 181–202.Google Scholar
Collins, Jessica. “Jane Holt, Milliner, and Other Women in Business: Apprentices, Freewomen and Mistresses in the Clothworkers’ Company, 1606–1800.” Textile History 44, no. 1 (2013): 72–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, Christine. “‘Your Little Madam Snip’: The Impact of the Askin Women’s Domestic Arts on the Askin Business and Trade Practices.” Unpublished manuscript, September 2019.Google Scholar
Cox, Catherine. “Women and Business in Eighteenth-Century Dublin: A Case Study.” In Women and Paid Work in Ireland, 1500–1930, edited by Whelan, Bernadette, 30–43. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Damiano, Sara T. “Agents at Home: Wives, Lawyers, and Financial Competence in Eighteenth-Century New England Port Cities.” Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 13, no. 4 (2015): 808–835.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dingwall, Helen. “The Power Behind the Merchant? Women and the Economy in Late Seventeenth-Century Edinburgh.” In Women in Scotland c.1100–c.1750, edited by Ewan, Elizabeth and Meikle, Maureen M., 152–162. East Linton, UK: Tuckwell Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Doe, Helen. “Gender and Business: Women in Business or Businesswomen? An Assessment of the History of Entrepreneurial Women.” In The Routledge Companion to Business History, edited by Wilson, John F., Toms, Steven, de Jong, Abe, and Buchnea, Emily, 347–357. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Farrer, William, and Brownbill, John. “Liverpool: The Docks.” In A History of the County of Lancaster: Volume 4, edited by Farrer, William and Brownbill, John, 41–43. London: Victoria County History, 1911. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/lancs/vol4/pp41-43 (accessed September 16, 2019).Google Scholar
Finley, Alexandra. “‘Cash to Corinna’: Domestic Labor and Sexual Economy in the ‘Fancy Trade.’” Journal of American History 104, no. 2 (2017): 410–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forestier, Albane. “Risk, Kinship, and Personal Relationships in Late Eighteenth-Century West Indian Trade: The Commercial Network of Tobin and Pinney.” Business History 52, no. 6 (2010): 912–931.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “A Link in the Chain: Trade and the Transhipment of Knowledge in the Late Eighteenth Century.” International Journal of Maritime History 14, no. 1 (2002): 157–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “‘Miss Fan can turn her han!’: Female Traders in Eighteenth-Century British-American Atlantic Port Cities.” Atlantic Studies 6, no. 1 (2009): 29–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Women, Work and the Consumer Revolution: Liverpool in the Late Eighteenth Century.” In A Nation of Shopkeepers: Five Centuries of British Retailing, edited by Benson, John and Ugolini, Laura, 106–126. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.Google Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “‘You Promise Well and Perform as Badly’: The Failure of the ‘Implicit Contract of Family’ in the Scottish Atlantic.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 267–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, Douglas. “Local Connections, Global Ambitions: Creating a Transoceanic Network in the Eighteenth-Century British Atlantic Empire.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 283–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, Marsha. “Commerce around the Edges: Atlantic Trade Networks among Boston’s Scottish Merchants.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 301–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hancock, David. “Combining Success and Failure: Scottish Networks in the Atlantic Wine Trade.” In Irish and Scottish Mercantile Networks in Europe and Overseas in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Dickson, David, Parmentier, Jan, and Ohlmeyer, Jane, 5–37. Ghent, Belgium: Academia Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Hancock, David. “The Trouble with Networks; Managing the Scots’ Early Modern Madeira Trade.” Business History Review 79, no. 3 (2005): 467–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, Pat, and Lee, W. R.. “Women’s Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective.” In Women’s Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective, edited by Hudson, Pat and Lee, W. R., 2–47. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Marzagalli, Silvia. “Establishing Transatlantic Trade Networks in Time of War: Bordeaux and the United States, 1793–1815.” Business History Review 79, no. 4 (2005): 811–844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathers, Jones, Constance. “Family Partnerships and International Trade in Early Modern Europe: Merchants from Burgos in England and France, 1470–1570.” Business History Review 62, no. 3 (1988): 367–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Kenneth. “Scottish Mercantile Networks in the Early Modern Atlantic.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 263–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonton, Deborah. “Claiming Their Place in the Corporate Community: Women’s Identity in Eighteenth-Century Towns.” In The Invisible Woman: Aspects of Women’s Work in Eighteenth-Century Britain, edited by Baudine, Isabelle, Carré, Jacques, and Révauger, Cécile, 101–116. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.Google Scholar
Smout, Thomas Christopher. “Born Again at Cambulsang: New Evidence on Popular Religion and Literacy in Eighteenth-Century Scotland.” Past & Present 97, no. 1 (1982): 114–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stearns, Peter N., and Stearns, Carol Z.. “Emotionology: Clarifying the History of Emotions and Emotional Standards.” American Historical Review 90, no. 4 (1985): 813–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stephens, W. B. “Literacy in England, Scotland, and Wales, 1500–1900.” History of Education Quarterly 30, no. 4 (1990): 545–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whelan, Bernadette. “Preface.” In Women and Paid Work in Ireland, 1500–1930, edited by Whelan, Bernadette, 9–12. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Whittle, Jane. “A Critique of Approaches to ‘Domestic Work’: Women, Work and the Pre-Industrial Economy.” Past & Present 243, no. 1 (2019): 35–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
New York Public Library, New York.Google Scholar
Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, UK.Google Scholar
American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, MA.Google Scholar
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), online. https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/publications/ Google Scholar
The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA.Google Scholar
Agnew, Jean. Belfast Merchant Families in the Seventeenth Century. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Ascott, Diana E., Lewis, Fiona, and Power, Michael. Liverpool 1660–1750: People, Prosperity and Power. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Barker, Hannah. Family and Business During the Industrial Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Candlin, Kit, and Pybus, Cassandra. Enterprising Women: Gender, Race, and Power in the Revolutionary Atlantic. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Clark, Alice. Working Life of Women in the Seventeenth Century. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1919.Google Scholar
Davidoff, Leonore, and Hall, Catherine. Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1850. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.Google Scholar
Defoe, Daniel. The Complete English Tradesman, in Familiar Letters… London: Charles Rivington, 1726.Google Scholar
Doerflinger, Thomas. A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Fuentes, Marisa J. Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. The British-Atlantic Trading Community,1760–1810: Men, Women, And The Distribution of Goods. Leiden: Brill, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Merely for Money”? Business Culture in the British Atlantic, 1750–1815. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Hancock, David. Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the Integration of the British Atlantic Community, 1735–1785. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Hartigan-O’Connor, Ellen. The Ties That Buy: Women and Commerce in Revolutionary America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, R. A. Scottish Literacy and the Scottish Identity: Illiteracy and Society in Scotland and Northern England, 1600–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunt, Margaret. The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender and the Family in England, 1680–1780. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hyde, Anne F. Empires, Nations and Families: A History of the North American West, 1800–1860. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Koot, Christian J. A Biography of a Map in Motion: Augustine Herrman’s Chesapeake. New York: New York University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Koot, Christian J. Empire at the Periphery: British Colonists, Anglo-Dutch Trade, and the Development of the British Atlantic, 16211713. New York: New York University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Matson, Cathy. Merchants & Empire: Trading in Colonial New York. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Muldrew, Craig. The Economy of Obligation: The Culture of Credit and Social Relations in Early Modern England. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Neill, Lindsay. The Opened Letter: Networking in the Early Modern British World. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Pearsall, Sarah. Atlantic Families: Lives and Letters in the Later Eighteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popp, Andrew. Entrepreneurial Families: Business, Marriage and Life in the Early Nineteenth Century. London: Routledge, 2013.Google Scholar
Price, Jacob M. Perry of London: A Family and a Firm on the Seaborne Frontier, 1615–1753. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Ramsey, William. The Life and Letters of Joseph Black, M.D. London: Constable and Company Ltd., 1918. https://archive.org/details/lifelettersofjos00ramsrich/page/n9 (accessed September 19, 2019).Google Scholar
Reddy, William M. The Navigation of Feeling: A Framework for the History of Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Shaw Romney, Susanah. New Netherland Connections: Intimate Networks and Atlantic Ties in Seventeenth-Century America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Rosenwein, Barbara H. Generations of Feeling; A History of Emotions, 600–1700. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Smith, Simon D., ed. An Exact and Industrious Tradesman: The Letterbook of Joseph Symson of Kendal, 1711–1720. Oxford: Oxford University Press for the British Academy, 2002.Google Scholar
Talbott, Siobhan. Conflict, Commerce and Franco-Scottish Relations, 1560–1713. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2014.Google Scholar
Truxes, Thomas M. Defying Empire: Trading with the Enemy in Colonial New York. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Van Rensselaer, May King, The Goede Vrouw of Mana-ha-ta: At Home and in Society, 1609–1760. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1898. https://archive.org/details/goedevrouwofmana00vanruoft/page/n3/mode/2up (accessed April 18, 2021).Google Scholar
Vicente, Marta V. Clothing the Spanish Empire: Families and the Calico Trade in the Early-Modern Atlantic World. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vickers, Daniel. Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630–1830. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Anderson, Robert G. W. “Joseph Black (1728–1799).” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/2495 (accessed September 19, 2019).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartolemi, Arnoud, Lemercier, Claire, Rebolledo-Dhuin, Viera, and Sougy, Nadege. “Becoming a Correspondent: The Foundations of New Merchant Relationships in Early Modern French Trade (1730–1820).” Enterprise & Society 20, no. 3 (2019): 533–574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baudine, Isabelle, Jacques, Carré, and Révauger, Cécile. “Introduction.” In The Invisible Woman: Aspects of Women’s Work in Eighteenth-Century Britain, edited by Baudine, Isabelle, Carré, Jacques, and Révauger, Cécile, 1–6. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.Google Scholar
Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman. “Women Apprentices in the Trades and Crafts of Early Modern Bristol.” Continuity & Change 6, no. 2 (1991): 227–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becket, John V. Review of An Exact and Industrious Tradesman: The Letterbook of Joseph Symson of Kendal, 1711–1720, edited by Smith, Simon D.. The English Historical Review 118, no. 475 (2003): 227–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleary, Patricia, “‘She Will Be in the Shop’: Women’s Sphere of Trade in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia and New York.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 119, no. 3 (1995): 181–202.Google Scholar
Collins, Jessica. “Jane Holt, Milliner, and Other Women in Business: Apprentices, Freewomen and Mistresses in the Clothworkers’ Company, 1606–1800.” Textile History 44, no. 1 (2013): 72–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, Christine. “‘Your Little Madam Snip’: The Impact of the Askin Women’s Domestic Arts on the Askin Business and Trade Practices.” Unpublished manuscript, September 2019.Google Scholar
Cox, Catherine. “Women and Business in Eighteenth-Century Dublin: A Case Study.” In Women and Paid Work in Ireland, 1500–1930, edited by Whelan, Bernadette, 30–43. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Damiano, Sara T. “Agents at Home: Wives, Lawyers, and Financial Competence in Eighteenth-Century New England Port Cities.” Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 13, no. 4 (2015): 808–835.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dingwall, Helen. “The Power Behind the Merchant? Women and the Economy in Late Seventeenth-Century Edinburgh.” In Women in Scotland c.1100–c.1750, edited by Ewan, Elizabeth and Meikle, Maureen M., 152–162. East Linton, UK: Tuckwell Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Doe, Helen. “Gender and Business: Women in Business or Businesswomen? An Assessment of the History of Entrepreneurial Women.” In The Routledge Companion to Business History, edited by Wilson, John F., Toms, Steven, de Jong, Abe, and Buchnea, Emily, 347–357. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Farrer, William, and Brownbill, John. “Liverpool: The Docks.” In A History of the County of Lancaster: Volume 4, edited by Farrer, William and Brownbill, John, 41–43. London: Victoria County History, 1911. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/lancs/vol4/pp41-43 (accessed September 16, 2019).Google Scholar
Finley, Alexandra. “‘Cash to Corinna’: Domestic Labor and Sexual Economy in the ‘Fancy Trade.’” Journal of American History 104, no. 2 (2017): 410–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forestier, Albane. “Risk, Kinship, and Personal Relationships in Late Eighteenth-Century West Indian Trade: The Commercial Network of Tobin and Pinney.” Business History 52, no. 6 (2010): 912–931.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “A Link in the Chain: Trade and the Transhipment of Knowledge in the Late Eighteenth Century.” International Journal of Maritime History 14, no. 1 (2002): 157–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “‘Miss Fan can turn her han!’: Female Traders in Eighteenth-Century British-American Atlantic Port Cities.” Atlantic Studies 6, no. 1 (2009): 29–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “Women, Work and the Consumer Revolution: Liverpool in the Late Eighteenth Century.” In A Nation of Shopkeepers: Five Centuries of British Retailing, edited by Benson, John and Ugolini, Laura, 106–126. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.Google Scholar
Haggerty, Sheryllynne. “‘You Promise Well and Perform as Badly’: The Failure of the ‘Implicit Contract of Family’ in the Scottish Atlantic.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 267–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, Douglas. “Local Connections, Global Ambitions: Creating a Transoceanic Network in the Eighteenth-Century British Atlantic Empire.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 283–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, Marsha. “Commerce around the Edges: Atlantic Trade Networks among Boston’s Scottish Merchants.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 301–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hancock, David. “Combining Success and Failure: Scottish Networks in the Atlantic Wine Trade.” In Irish and Scottish Mercantile Networks in Europe and Overseas in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, edited by Dickson, David, Parmentier, Jan, and Ohlmeyer, Jane, 5–37. Ghent, Belgium: Academia Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Hancock, David. “The Trouble with Networks; Managing the Scots’ Early Modern Madeira Trade.” Business History Review 79, no. 3 (2005): 467–491.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, Pat, and Lee, W. R.. “Women’s Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective.” In Women’s Work and the Family Economy in Historical Perspective, edited by Hudson, Pat and Lee, W. R., 2–47. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Marzagalli, Silvia. “Establishing Transatlantic Trade Networks in Time of War: Bordeaux and the United States, 1793–1815.” Business History Review 79, no. 4 (2005): 811–844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathers, Jones, Constance. “Family Partnerships and International Trade in Early Modern Europe: Merchants from Burgos in England and France, 1470–1570.” Business History Review 62, no. 3 (1988): 367–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Kenneth. “Scottish Mercantile Networks in the Early Modern Atlantic.” International Journal of Maritime History 23, no. 2 (2011): 263–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonton, Deborah. “Claiming Their Place in the Corporate Community: Women’s Identity in Eighteenth-Century Towns.” In The Invisible Woman: Aspects of Women’s Work in Eighteenth-Century Britain, edited by Baudine, Isabelle, Carré, Jacques, and Révauger, Cécile, 101–116. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.Google Scholar
Smout, Thomas Christopher. “Born Again at Cambulsang: New Evidence on Popular Religion and Literacy in Eighteenth-Century Scotland.” Past & Present 97, no. 1 (1982): 114–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stearns, Peter N., and Stearns, Carol Z.. “Emotionology: Clarifying the History of Emotions and Emotional Standards.” American Historical Review 90, no. 4 (1985): 813–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stephens, W. B. “Literacy in England, Scotland, and Wales, 1500–1900.” History of Education Quarterly 30, no. 4 (1990): 545–571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whelan, Bernadette. “Preface.” In Women and Paid Work in Ireland, 1500–1930, edited by Whelan, Bernadette, 9–12. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Whittle, Jane. “A Critique of Approaches to ‘Domestic Work’: Women, Work and the Pre-Industrial Economy.” Past & Present 243, no. 1 (2019): 35–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
New York Public Library, New York.Google Scholar
Liverpool Record Office, Liverpool, UK.Google Scholar
American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, MA.Google Scholar
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), online. https://www.nidirect.gov.uk/publications/ Google Scholar
The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA.Google Scholar