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Logos on Everest: Commercial Sponsorship of American Expeditions, 1950–2000

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 July 2020

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Abstract

In the 1950s, outdoor retailer Eddie Bauer donated down jackets to American mountaineers embarking on climbing expeditions in the Himalayas. In the 1990s, chemical manufacturer W. L. Gore & Associates donated both goods and $2 million to an expedition in Antarctica. The funds dedicated to sponsorship by the end of the twentieth century reflect a shift in how companies saw expeditions as useful to their marketing goals. This article uses two archives previously unexplored by historians that offer an unprecedented chance to compare sponsorship relationships in a single industry across decades. Commercial sponsorship of American expeditions and athletes has undergone three dramatic changes since 1950, and these shifts help explain how sponsorship as a form of marketing became so popular. Sponsorship contracts shifted from vague to specific as a result of decades of unsatisfying results for corporate sponsors. Sponsored athletes became business partners and began taking an active role in promoting the companies that provided them cash or donations in-kind. Finally, companies developed strategies for leveraging their sponsorship deals. The changing landscape of the business of expeditions ultimately reveals how the most long-lasting legacies of these extreme adventures happened far from the trail and much closer to company boardrooms, sponsorship managers’ offices and retail stores where consumers learned to engage with the narratives companies and athletes had crafted together.

Keywords

marketingsportsUS 20thenvironment
Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 22 , Issue 4 , December 2021 , pp. 1067 - 1102
Copyright
© The Authors 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved.

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Footnotes

The author thanks Christine Lamberson, Debbie Sharnak, Britt Tevis, Irene Toro Martínez, and three anonymous reviewers for helpful comments.

References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Blumenfeld, Jeff. Get Sponsored: A Funding Guide for Explorers, Adventurers, and Would-Be World Travelers. New York: Skyhorse, 2014.Google Scholar
Chouinard, Yvon. Let My People Go Surfing: The Education of a Reluctant Businessman. New York: Penguin, 2005.Google Scholar
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vonHippel, Eric. Democratizing Innovation. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isserman, Maurice. Continental Divide: A History of American Mountaineering. New York: Norton, 2016.Google Scholar
Isserman, Maurice, and Weaver, Stewart. Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Logan, Joy. Aconcagua: The Invention of Mountaineering on America’s Highest Peak. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Marchand, Roland. Creating the Corporate Soul: The Rise of Public Relations and Corporate Imagery in American Big Business. Berkeley: University of California Pres, 1998.Google Scholar
Mazzolini, Elizabeth. The Everest Effect: Nature, Culture, and Ideology. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Parsons, Mike, and Rose, Mary B.. Invisible on Everest: Innovation and the Gear Makers. Philadelphia: Northern Liberties Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Roberts, David. Moments of Doubt: And Other Mountaineering Writings of David Roberts. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1986.Google Scholar
Robinson, Michael. The Coldest Crucible: Arctic Exploration and American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Victoria. Everyday Masculinities and Extreme Sport: Male Identity and Rock Climbing. Oxford: Berg, 2008.Google Scholar
Skinner, Bruce E., and Rukavina, Vladimir. Event Sponsorship. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003.Google Scholar
Slack, Trevor, ed. The Commercialisation of Sport. New York: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Spector, Robert. The Legend of Eddie Bauer. 2nd ed. Seattle: Documentary Media, 2011.Google Scholar
Steger, Will, and Bowermaster, Jon. Crossing Antarctica. Birmingham, AL: Menasha Ridge Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Steger, Will, and Schurke, Paul. North to the Pole. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Sutter, Paul S. Driven Wild: How the Fight Against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Sweetgall, Robert, and Dignam, John. The Walker’s Journal: Experiencing America on Foot. Newark, DE: Creative Walking, 1986.Google Scholar
Taylor, Joseph E. Pilgrims of the Vertical: Yosemite Rock Climbers and Nature at Risk. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Whittaker, Jim. A Life on the Edge: Memoirs of Everest and Beyond. 2nd ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.Google Scholar
Witherell, James L. L.L. Bean: The Man and His Company. Thomaston, ME: Tilbury House, 2011.Google Scholar
Yowell, Skip. The Hippie Guide to Climbing the Corporate Ladder & Other Mountains: How Jansport Makes It Happen. Nashville, TN: Naked Ink, 2006.Google Scholar
Baldwin, Carliss, Hienerth, Christoph, and von Hippel, Eric. “How User Innovations Become Commercial Products: A Theoretical Investigation and Case Study.” Research Policy 35 (2006): 1291–1313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barcham, Thomas. “Commercial Sponsorship in Mountaineering: A Case Study of the 1975 British Everest Expedition.” Sport in History 33, no. 3 (2013): 333–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borish, Linda J. “Women in American Sport History.” In A Companion to American Sport History, edited by Riess, Steven A., 500–520. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.Google Scholar
Brace, Mark L. “Revisiting Los Angeles: A Financial Look at the XXIIIrd Olympiad.” Southern California Quarterly 83, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 161–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breuer, Christoph, Pawlowski, Tim, and Rumpf, Christopher (adapted by André Richelieu), “Sponsorship and Branding.” In Global Sport Marketing: Contemporary Issues and Practice, edited by Desbordes, Michel and Richelieu, André, 47–62. London: Routledge, 2012.Google Scholar
Cooper, Pamela L. “The ‘Visible Hand’ on the Footrace: Fred Lebow and the Marketing of the Marathon.” Journal of Sport History 19, no. 3 (Winter 1992): 244–256.Google Scholar
Cornwell, T. Bettina. “State of the Art and Science in Sponsorship-linked Marketing” Journal of Advertising 37, no. 3 (September 2008): 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornwell, T. Bettina, Weeks, Clinton S., and Roy, Donald P.. “Sponsorship-linked Marketing: Opening the Black Box.” Journal of Advertising 34, no. 2 (Summer 2005): 21–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fenton, W. “In a Downturn or Just Pausing for Breath? An Objective Look at the State of the Sports Marketing Industry.” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 3, no. 2 (2001): 86–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gugglberger, Martina. “Climbing Beyond the Summits: Social and Global Aspects of Women’s Expeditions in the Himalayas.” International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 4 (March 2015): 597–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardy, Stephen. “Entrepreneurs, Organizations, and the Sport Marketplace: Subjects in Search of Historians.” Journal of Sport History 13, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 14–33.Google Scholar
Hardy, Stephen, Norman, Brian, and Sceery, Sarah. “Toward a History of Sport Branding.” Journal of Historical Research in Marketing 4, no. 4 (2012): 482–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Barbara E., and Edwards, Ted. “The Commodification of Mountaineering.” Annals of Tourism Research 21, no. 3 (1994): 459–478.Google Scholar
Kaplan, Max, and Lazarsfeld, Paul F., “The Mass Media and Man’s Orientation to Nature.” In Trends in American Living and Outdoor Recreation. ORRRC Study Report 22. Washington, DC: Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, 1962.Google Scholar
Lavack, Anne M. “An Inside View of Tobacco Sports Sponsorship: An Historical Perspective.” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 5, no. 2 (June/July 2003): 14–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lüthje, C. “Characteristics of Innovating Users in a Consumer Goods Field: An Empirical Study of Sport-related Product Consumers.” Technovation 24 (2004), 683–695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDaniel, Stephen R., Mason, Daniel S., and Kinney, Lance. “Spectator Sport’s Strange Bedfellows: The Commercial Sponsorship of Sporting Events to Promote Alcohol, Tobacco and Lotteries.” In The Commercialisation of Sport, edited by Slack, Trevor, 277–296. New York: Routledge, 2004Google Scholar
Morgan, Ashley, Frawley, Stephen, Fujak, Hunter, and Cobourn, Sarah. “Sponsorship and Sport Mega-Events.” In Managing Sport Mega-Events, edited by Frawley, Stephen, 105–120. London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Nielson, Hanne. “Selling the South: Commercialisation and Marketing of Antarctica.” In Handbook on the Politics of Antarctica, edited by Dodds, Klaus, Hemmings, Alan D., and Roberts, Peder, 183–198. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2017.Google Scholar
Porter, Dilwyn, and Vamplew, Wray. “Entrepreneurship, Sport, and History: An Overview.” International Journal of the History of Sport 35, nos. 7–8 (2018): 626–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puchan, Heike. “Living ‘Extreme’: Adventure Sports, Media and Commercialization.” Journal of Communication Management 9, no. 2 (2004): 171–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ritchie, Andrew. “The Origins of Bicycle Racing in England: Technology, Entertainment, Sponsorship and Advertising in the Early History of the Sport.” Journal of Sport History 26, no. 3 (Fall 1999): 489–520.Google ScholarPubMed
Rose, Mary B., Love, Terence, and Parsons, Mike. “Path-dependent Foundations of Global Design-driven Outdoor Trade in the Northwest of England.” International Journal of Design 1, no. 3 (2007): 57–68.Google Scholar
Ross, J. Andrew. “Explaining Exceptionalism: Approaches to the Study of American Sports Business History.” In A Companion to American Sport History, edited by Riess, Steven A., 523–551. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, Sonali K. “Sources and Patterns of Innovation in a Consumer Products Field: Innovations in Sporting Equipment.” MIT Sloan School Working Paper 4105. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, 2000.Google Scholar
Shah, Sonali K.. “From Innovation to Firm Formation: Contributions by Sports Enthusiasts to the Windsurfing, Snowboarding & Skateboarding Industries.” In The Engineering of Sport 6. Vol. 3, edited by Moritz, E. F. and Haake, S., 29–34. New York: Springer, 2006.Google Scholar
Simon, Gregory, and Alagona, Peter, “Contradictions at the Confluence of Commerce, Consumption, and Conservation; Or, An REI Shopper Camps in the Forest, Does Anyone Notice?” Geoforum 45 (March 2013): 325–336.Google Scholar
Slack, Trevor, and Amis, John. “‘Money for Nothing and Your Cheques for Free?’: A Critical Perspective on Sport Sponsorship.” In The Commercialisation of Sport, edited by Slack, Trevor, 259–276. London: Routledge, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tennent, Kevin D., and Alex, G. Gillett. “Opportunities for All the Team: Entrepreneurship and the 1966 and 1994 Soccer World Cups.” International Journal of the History of Sport 35, nos. 7–8 (2018): 767–788.Google Scholar
Vamplew, Wray. “Products, Promotion, and (Possibly) Profits: Sports Enterpreneurship Revisited.” Journal of Sport History 45, no. 2 (Summer 2018): 183–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Wayne. “Sports Infrastructure, Legacy and the Paradox of the 1984 Olympic Games.” International Journal of the History of Sport, 32, no. 1 (2015): 144–156.Google Scholar
American Alpine Journal Google Scholar
Backpacker Google Scholar
Cecil County News Journal Google Scholar
Du Pont Magazine Google Scholar
New York Times Google Scholar
Outside Google Scholar
Outside Business Google Scholar
Sports Illustrated Google Scholar
Sunday News Journal Google Scholar
USA Today Google Scholar
Wilmington News Journal Google Scholar
Trans-Antarctica Expedition Records, International Polar Expeditions, Inc. Records 1985–1991, Minnesota Historical Society [TAE]Google Scholar
Eddie Bauer Corporate Archives [EB] 2020Google Scholar
Gore, W. L. & Associates Corporate Archives [GCA] 2020Google Scholar
Bloom, Lisa. Gender on Ice: American Ideologies of Polar Expeditions. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Blumenfeld, Jeff. Get Sponsored: A Funding Guide for Explorers, Adventurers, and Would-Be World Travelers. New York: Skyhorse, 2014.Google Scholar
Chouinard, Yvon. Let My People Go Surfing: The Education of a Reluctant Businessman. New York: Penguin, 2005.Google Scholar
Clements, Philip W. Science in an Extreme Environment: The 1963 American Mount Everest Expedition. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enstad, Nan. Cigarettes, Inc.: An Intimate History of Corporate Imperialism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratton, Chris, Liu, Dongfeng, Ramchandani, Girish, and Wilson, Darryl. The Global Economics of Sport. London: Routledge, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grey, Anne-Marie, and Skildum-Reid, Kim. The Sponsorship Seeker’s Toolkit. 2nd ed. Sydney: McGraw-Hill Australia, 2003.Google Scholar
Hansen, Peter. The Summits of Modern Man: Mountaineering After the Enlightenment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
vonHippel, Eric. Democratizing Innovation. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isserman, Maurice. Continental Divide: A History of American Mountaineering. New York: Norton, 2016.Google Scholar
Isserman, Maurice, and Weaver, Stewart. Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Logan, Joy. Aconcagua: The Invention of Mountaineering on America’s Highest Peak. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Marchand, Roland. Creating the Corporate Soul: The Rise of Public Relations and Corporate Imagery in American Big Business. Berkeley: University of California Pres, 1998.Google Scholar
Mazzolini, Elizabeth. The Everest Effect: Nature, Culture, and Ideology. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Parsons, Mike, and Rose, Mary B.. Invisible on Everest: Innovation and the Gear Makers. Philadelphia: Northern Liberties Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Roberts, David. Moments of Doubt: And Other Mountaineering Writings of David Roberts. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1986.Google Scholar
Robinson, Michael. The Coldest Crucible: Arctic Exploration and American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, Victoria. Everyday Masculinities and Extreme Sport: Male Identity and Rock Climbing. Oxford: Berg, 2008.Google Scholar
Skinner, Bruce E., and Rukavina, Vladimir. Event Sponsorship. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003.Google Scholar
Slack, Trevor, ed. The Commercialisation of Sport. New York: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Spector, Robert. The Legend of Eddie Bauer. 2nd ed. Seattle: Documentary Media, 2011.Google Scholar
Steger, Will, and Bowermaster, Jon. Crossing Antarctica. Birmingham, AL: Menasha Ridge Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Steger, Will, and Schurke, Paul. North to the Pole. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Sutter, Paul S. Driven Wild: How the Fight Against Automobiles Launched the Modern Wilderness Movement. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Sweetgall, Robert, and Dignam, John. The Walker’s Journal: Experiencing America on Foot. Newark, DE: Creative Walking, 1986.Google Scholar
Taylor, Joseph E. Pilgrims of the Vertical: Yosemite Rock Climbers and Nature at Risk. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Whittaker, Jim. A Life on the Edge: Memoirs of Everest and Beyond. 2nd ed. Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1999.Google Scholar
Witherell, James L. L.L. Bean: The Man and His Company. Thomaston, ME: Tilbury House, 2011.Google Scholar
Yowell, Skip. The Hippie Guide to Climbing the Corporate Ladder & Other Mountains: How Jansport Makes It Happen. Nashville, TN: Naked Ink, 2006.Google Scholar
Baldwin, Carliss, Hienerth, Christoph, and von Hippel, Eric. “How User Innovations Become Commercial Products: A Theoretical Investigation and Case Study.” Research Policy 35 (2006): 1291–1313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barcham, Thomas. “Commercial Sponsorship in Mountaineering: A Case Study of the 1975 British Everest Expedition.” Sport in History 33, no. 3 (2013): 333–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borish, Linda J. “Women in American Sport History.” In A Companion to American Sport History, edited by Riess, Steven A., 500–520. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.Google Scholar
Brace, Mark L. “Revisiting Los Angeles: A Financial Look at the XXIIIrd Olympiad.” Southern California Quarterly 83, no. 2 (Summer 2001): 161–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Breuer, Christoph, Pawlowski, Tim, and Rumpf, Christopher (adapted by André Richelieu), “Sponsorship and Branding.” In Global Sport Marketing: Contemporary Issues and Practice, edited by Desbordes, Michel and Richelieu, André, 47–62. London: Routledge, 2012.Google Scholar
Cooper, Pamela L. “The ‘Visible Hand’ on the Footrace: Fred Lebow and the Marketing of the Marathon.” Journal of Sport History 19, no. 3 (Winter 1992): 244–256.Google Scholar
Cornwell, T. Bettina. “State of the Art and Science in Sponsorship-linked Marketing” Journal of Advertising 37, no. 3 (September 2008): 41–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornwell, T. Bettina, Weeks, Clinton S., and Roy, Donald P.. “Sponsorship-linked Marketing: Opening the Black Box.” Journal of Advertising 34, no. 2 (Summer 2005): 21–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fenton, W. “In a Downturn or Just Pausing for Breath? An Objective Look at the State of the Sports Marketing Industry.” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 3, no. 2 (2001): 86–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gugglberger, Martina. “Climbing Beyond the Summits: Social and Global Aspects of Women’s Expeditions in the Himalayas.” International Journal of the History of Sport 32, no. 4 (March 2015): 597–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardy, Stephen. “Entrepreneurs, Organizations, and the Sport Marketplace: Subjects in Search of Historians.” Journal of Sport History 13, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 14–33.Google Scholar
Hardy, Stephen, Norman, Brian, and Sceery, Sarah. “Toward a History of Sport Branding.” Journal of Historical Research in Marketing 4, no. 4 (2012): 482–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Barbara E., and Edwards, Ted. “The Commodification of Mountaineering.” Annals of Tourism Research 21, no. 3 (1994): 459–478.Google Scholar
Kaplan, Max, and Lazarsfeld, Paul F., “The Mass Media and Man’s Orientation to Nature.” In Trends in American Living and Outdoor Recreation. ORRRC Study Report 22. Washington, DC: Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, 1962.Google Scholar
Lavack, Anne M. “An Inside View of Tobacco Sports Sponsorship: An Historical Perspective.” International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship 5, no. 2 (June/July 2003): 14–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lüthje, C. “Characteristics of Innovating Users in a Consumer Goods Field: An Empirical Study of Sport-related Product Consumers.” Technovation 24 (2004), 683–695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDaniel, Stephen R., Mason, Daniel S., and Kinney, Lance. “Spectator Sport’s Strange Bedfellows: The Commercial Sponsorship of Sporting Events to Promote Alcohol, Tobacco and Lotteries.” In The Commercialisation of Sport, edited by Slack, Trevor, 277–296. New York: Routledge, 2004Google Scholar
Morgan, Ashley, Frawley, Stephen, Fujak, Hunter, and Cobourn, Sarah. “Sponsorship and Sport Mega-Events.” In Managing Sport Mega-Events, edited by Frawley, Stephen, 105–120. London: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Nielson, Hanne. “Selling the South: Commercialisation and Marketing of Antarctica.” In Handbook on the Politics of Antarctica, edited by Dodds, Klaus, Hemmings, Alan D., and Roberts, Peder, 183–198. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2017.Google Scholar
Porter, Dilwyn, and Vamplew, Wray. “Entrepreneurship, Sport, and History: An Overview.” International Journal of the History of Sport 35, nos. 7–8 (2018): 626–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puchan, Heike. “Living ‘Extreme’: Adventure Sports, Media and Commercialization.” Journal of Communication Management 9, no. 2 (2004): 171–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ritchie, Andrew. “The Origins of Bicycle Racing in England: Technology, Entertainment, Sponsorship and Advertising in the Early History of the Sport.” Journal of Sport History 26, no. 3 (Fall 1999): 489–520.Google ScholarPubMed
Rose, Mary B., Love, Terence, and Parsons, Mike. “Path-dependent Foundations of Global Design-driven Outdoor Trade in the Northwest of England.” International Journal of Design 1, no. 3 (2007): 57–68.Google Scholar
Ross, J. Andrew. “Explaining Exceptionalism: Approaches to the Study of American Sports Business History.” In A Companion to American Sport History, edited by Riess, Steven A., 523–551. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shah, Sonali K. “Sources and Patterns of Innovation in a Consumer Products Field: Innovations in Sporting Equipment.” MIT Sloan School Working Paper 4105. Cambridge, MA: MIT Sloan School of Management, 2000.Google Scholar
Shah, Sonali K.. “From Innovation to Firm Formation: Contributions by Sports Enthusiasts to the Windsurfing, Snowboarding & Skateboarding Industries.” In The Engineering of Sport 6. Vol. 3, edited by Moritz, E. F. and Haake, S., 29–34. New York: Springer, 2006.Google Scholar
Simon, Gregory, and Alagona, Peter, “Contradictions at the Confluence of Commerce, Consumption, and Conservation; Or, An REI Shopper Camps in the Forest, Does Anyone Notice?” Geoforum 45 (March 2013): 325–336.Google Scholar
Slack, Trevor, and Amis, John. “‘Money for Nothing and Your Cheques for Free?’: A Critical Perspective on Sport Sponsorship.” In The Commercialisation of Sport, edited by Slack, Trevor, 259–276. London: Routledge, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tennent, Kevin D., and Alex, G. Gillett. “Opportunities for All the Team: Entrepreneurship and the 1966 and 1994 Soccer World Cups.” International Journal of the History of Sport 35, nos. 7–8 (2018): 767–788.Google Scholar
Vamplew, Wray. “Products, Promotion, and (Possibly) Profits: Sports Enterpreneurship Revisited.” Journal of Sport History 45, no. 2 (Summer 2018): 183–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Wayne. “Sports Infrastructure, Legacy and the Paradox of the 1984 Olympic Games.” International Journal of the History of Sport, 32, no. 1 (2015): 144–156.Google Scholar
American Alpine Journal Google Scholar
Backpacker Google Scholar
Cecil County News Journal Google Scholar
Du Pont Magazine Google Scholar
New York Times Google Scholar
Outside Google Scholar
Outside Business Google Scholar
Sports Illustrated Google Scholar
Sunday News Journal Google Scholar
USA Today Google Scholar
Wilmington News Journal Google Scholar
Trans-Antarctica Expedition Records, International Polar Expeditions, Inc. Records 1985–1991, Minnesota Historical Society [TAE]Google Scholar
Eddie Bauer Corporate Archives [EB] 2020Google Scholar
Gore, W. L. & Associates Corporate Archives [GCA] 2020Google Scholar