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The Digitalization of Banking: A New Perspective from the European Savings Banks Industry before the Internet

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 September 2018

J. CARLES MAIXÉ-ALTÉS
J. CARLES MAIXÉ-ALTÉS*
Affiliation:
J. Carles Maixé-Altés is an associate professor in economic and business history at the University of A Coruña, Spain. His interests include financial and banking history and wholesale and retail trade history. Contact information: Facultad de Economía y Empresa, Campus de Elviña s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain. E-mail: [email protected].
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Abstract

This work is a contribution to the study of the adoption and use of computers in the savings bank industry in western Europe before the arrival of the Internet. It documents the presence of a pan-European network of IT users and analyzes the role of their industry associations in the processes of adopting and disseminating technology. It describes and analyzes their situation as late technology users, indicating certain specific and original patterns in the adoption of computers. Special attention is given to the implementation of shared computer centers throughout Europe and the results in the area of online accounting systems and teleprocessing systems as steps before the development of savings bank electronic funds transfer networks. It documents that in the savings banks industry, a reciprocal influence between technology and its uses was in play over long period of time and throughout the technological changes.

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 20 , Issue 1 , March 2019 , pp. 159 - 198
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2018. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved. 

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Footnotes

The author acknowledges financial support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO), Award number HAR2016-75375-R. He would also like to acknowledge comments from Thomas Haigh and the rest of the participants at the session ‘‘Networks as Places in the History of Computing,” SHOT Annual Meeting- SHOT’10, Tacoma WA, US, November 2010; and at the session “IT in Economy and Banking,” HiNC4 – History of IT in the Nordics, Nordic Conference on IT History, Copenhagen, August 2014. A special thanks to Nancy Lockkamper, archivist of the WSBI in Brussels. He also thanks the editor for the comments received and the refereeing process, which have improved the article. The usual caveats apply.

References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Booth, Alan. The Management of Technical Change: Automation in the UK and USA since 1950. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.Google Scholar
Campbell-Kelly, Martin, and Aspray, William. Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: HarperCollins, 1996Google Scholar
Cortada, James W. The Digital Flood. The Diffusion of Information Technology across the US, Europe and Asia. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Cortada, James W. The Digital Hand. How Computers Changed the Work of American Financial, Telecommunication, Media, and Entertainment Industries, vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Duet, Daniel. La Métamorphose des Caisses d’Épargne: l’Évolution des Caisses d’Épargne Ecureuil de leurs Origines à la Période Actuelle. Paris: Editions de l’Epargne, 1986.Google Scholar
Heide, Lars. Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion, 1880–1945. Studies in Industry and Society. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Körberg, Ingvar. Förnyelsen: Sparbankernas Historia 1945–1980, Stockholm: Ekerlid, 2006.Google Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. Innovación y Compromiso Social. 60 años de Informatización y Crecimiento, 1950–2011. Barcelona: Edicions 62–Caixa d’Estalvis i Pensions de Barcelona, 2012.Google Scholar
Revell, Jack. The Future of Savings Banks. A Study of Spain and the Rest of Europe. Research Papers in Banking and Finance. Bangor: Institute of European Finance, University College of North Wales, 1989.Google Scholar
Scott, Susan V., and Zachariadis, Markos. The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT): Cooperative Governance for Network Innovation, Standards, and Community. London: Routledge, 2013.Google Scholar
Stearns, David L. Electronic Value Exchange. Origins of the VISA Electronic Payment System. London: Springer, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yates, JoAnne. Structuring the Information Age: Life Insurance and Technology in the Twentieth Century. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Yost, Jeffrey R. Making IT Work. A History of the Computer Services Industry, Cambridge: MIT Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adanero, J. L. “Algunos dinamizadores de la industria española de las telecomunicaciones.” In Crónicas y testimonios de las telecomunicaciones españolas, edited by Rico, C., 2: 585–636. Madrid: JdeJ Editores.Google Scholar
Alberts, Gerard. “Appropriating America: Americanization in the History of European Computing.” Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE, 32, no. 2 (2010): 4–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Appelquist, Joakim. “Technical and Organizational Change in Swedish Banking, 1975–2003.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 71–91. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
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Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Carles Maixé-Altés, J.. “Managing Technological Change by Committee: Adoption of Computers in Spanish and British Savings Banks (circa 1960–1988).” Revista de Historia Industrial, 47 (2011): 117–150.Google Scholar
Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Carles Maixé-Altés, J.. “Organizational Change and the Computerization of British and Spanish Savings Banks, circa 1950–1985.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 137–154. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Reid, Robert. “The Development of Cash-Dispensing Technology in the UK.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 33, no. 3 (2011): 32–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Wardley, Peter. “Banking on Change: Information Systems and Technologies in UK High Street Banking 1919–69.” Financial History Review, 14, no. 2 (2007): 177–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul. “In Digital We Trust: The Computerisation of Retail Finance in Western Europe and North America.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 3–12. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Haigh, Thomas, and Stearns, David L.. “How the Future Shaped the Past: The Case of the Cashless Society.” Enterprise and Society, 15, no. 1 (2014): 102–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Karlsson, Tobias, and Thodenius, Björn. “The Origins of the Cashless Society: Cash Dispensers, Direct to Account Payments and the Development of Online Real-Time Networks, c. 1965–1985.” Essays in Economic & Business History, 32 (2014): 100–137.Google Scholar
Bergin, T. J., and Haigh, Thomas. “The Commercialization of Database Management Systems, 1969–1983.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 31, no. 4 (2009): 26–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonin, Hubert. “From Prehistory to the History of Computer in Banking: Mechanization of Data Processing and Accounting Methods in French Banks, circa 1930–1950.” in Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 15–36. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Cortada, James W. “How Did Computing Go Global? The Need for an Answer and a Research Agenda.” Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE, 26, no. 1 (2004): 53–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haigh, Thomas. “Inventing Information Systems: The Systems Men and the Computer, 1950–1968.” Business History Review,75, no. 1 (2001): 15–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haigh, Thomas. “‘A Veritable Bucket of Facts’: Origins of the Data Base Management System.” ACM SIGMOD Record, 35, no. 2 (2006): 33–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heide, Lars. “Retail Banking and the Dynamics of Information Technology in Business Organizations.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 275–285. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “Enterprise and Philanthropy: The Dilemma of Scottish Savings Banks in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Accounting, Business & Financial History, 19, no. 1 (2009): 39–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “La Opción Tecnológica de las Cajas de Ahorro Españolas antes de Internet, circa 1950–1995. “Investigaciones de Historia Económica—Economic History Research, 9, no. 2 (2013): 175–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “ICT the Nordic Way and European Retail Banking.” In History of Nordic Computing 4, edited by Gram, Chr., Ostergaard, Soren Duus, and Heide, Lars, 249–262. Heidelberg: Springer, 2015.Google Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “Retail Trade and Payment Innovations in the Digital Era: A Cross-Industry and Multi-Country Approach.” Business History (forthcoming).Google Scholar
Martin, Ian. “Britain’s First Computer Centre for Banking: What Did This Building Do?” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 37–70. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Martin, Ian. “Too Far Ahead of Its Time: Barclays, Burroughs, and Real-Time Banking.” Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE, 34, no. 2 (2012): 5–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, Eoin. “Profligacy in the encouragement of thrift’: Savings Banks in Ireland, 1817–1914.” Business History, 56, no. 4 (2014): 569–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellbring, R. “Nordiska Terminalprojektet. Tekniskt Genombrott Inom Bankvärlden.” Datasaabs Vänners Medlemsblad, 13 (2006): 8–14.Google Scholar
Misa, Thomas J., and Schot, Johan. “Inventing Europe: Technology and the Hidden Integration of Europe.” History and Technology, 21, no. 1 (2005): 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paju, Petri, and Haigh, Thomas. “IBM Rebuilds Europe: The Curious Case of the Transnational Typewriter.” Enterprise and Society, 17, no. 2 (2016): 265–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philipson, Graeme. “A Short History of Software.” In Management, Labour Process and Software Developments: Reality Bites, edited by Barrett, Rowena, 13–44. New York: Routledge, 2005.Google Scholar
Ross, Duncan M. “Clubs and Consortia: European Banking Groups as Strategic Alliances.” In European Banks and the American Challenge: Competition and Cooperation in International Banking under Bretton Woods, edited by Battilossi, Stefano and Cassis, Youssef, 135–160. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Ross, Duncan M. “‘Penny Banks’ in Glasgow, 1850–1914.” Financial History Review, 9, no. 1 (2002): 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomes, Paul. “Is There an ICT Path in the German Savings Banking Industry? Circa 1900–1970s.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 119–136. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Vidaurrázaga, I. “La primera red pública del mundo de conmutación de paquetes.” In 25 años de la transmisión de datos, edited by Martín Bernal, O. and Rodríguez Jimenez, M., 137–141. Madrid: Teléfonica Transmisión de Datos SA, 1998.Google Scholar
Wardley, Peter. “The Commercial Banking Industry and Its Part in the Emergence of the Corporate Economy in Britain before 1940.” Journal of Industrial History, 3 (2000): 71–97.Google Scholar
Yates, JoAnne. “Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries.” Business History Review, 67, no. 1 (1993): 1–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yost, Jeffrey R. “Materiel Command and the Materiality of Commands: An Historical Examination of the US Air Force, Control Data Corporation, and the Advanced Logistics System.” In History of Computing. Learning from the Past IFIP WG 9.7 International Conference, edited by Tatnall, Arthur, 89–100. Heidelberg: Springer, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, William D. “The ‘DUZ’ General-Purpose Control Panel for the IBM Type 604 Electronic Calculator.” IBM Technical Newsletter, 1 (June 1950): 9–11.Google Scholar
Frank, Ronald A. “IBM Subsystem Allow Series/1 to Emulate 3270 Terminals.” Computer World, 11, no. 26 (1977): 1.Google Scholar
Herrera Codina, Enrique. “Modernización, racionalización, mecanización.” Bulletí de la Associació del Personal de la Caixa de Pensions, 6 (November 1958): 6.Google Scholar
IBM. The 1060 Data Communication System. New York: International Business Machines, 1962.Google Scholar
Sprague, Richard E. “Electronic Funds Transfer in Europe: Their Relevance for the United States.” Savings Banks International, 3 (1977): 29–35.Google Scholar
Tucker, S.G. “The IBM 3090 System: An Overview.” IBM Systems Journal, 25, no. 1 (1986): 4–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
AHC, Historical Archive of “la Caixa,” Barcelona.Google Scholar
CECA Library and Archive, Confederación Española de Cajas de Ahorro (Industry Association of the Spanish Savings Banks), Madrid.Google Scholar
ISBI Archive, World Savings and Retail Banking Institute—European Savings and Retail Banking Group, Brussels.Google Scholar
Esteve, José (director of computer department, CECA, c. 1970s–1990s), interview, Madrid, September 25, 2007.Google Scholar
Lacasta Mussons, Jordi (director of communications, “la Caixa,” c. 1980s–2000s), interview, Barcelona, June 8, 2011.Google Scholar
Munt Alvareda, Josep (IBM marketing executive for “la Caixa” and director of systems IBM-Barcelona, c. 1960s–1980s), interview, Barcelona, June 14, 2011.Google Scholar
Rius Palleiro, Ramón J. (managing director SILC Inmobles, SA, and “la Caixa” Data Center), interview, Barcelona, April 27, 2011.Google Scholar
Ruiz Kaiser, Jesús (head of computer department, c. 1960s, and deputy general manager, c. 1970s–1980s at “la Caixa”), interview, Barcelona, April 13, 2011.Google Scholar
Ackrill, Margaret, and Hannah, Leslie. Barclays. The Business of Banking, 1690–1996. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Booth, Alan. The Management of Technical Change: Automation in the UK and USA since 1950. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.Google Scholar
Campbell-Kelly, Martin, and Aspray, William. Computer: A History of the Information Machine. New York: HarperCollins, 1996Google Scholar
Cortada, James W. The Digital Flood. The Diffusion of Information Technology across the US, Europe and Asia. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Cortada, James W. The Digital Hand. How Computers Changed the Work of American Financial, Telecommunication, Media, and Entertainment Industries, vol. 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Duet, Daniel. La Métamorphose des Caisses d’Épargne: l’Évolution des Caisses d’Épargne Ecureuil de leurs Origines à la Période Actuelle. Paris: Editions de l’Epargne, 1986.Google Scholar
Heide, Lars. Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion, 1880–1945. Studies in Industry and Society. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Körberg, Ingvar. Förnyelsen: Sparbankernas Historia 1945–1980, Stockholm: Ekerlid, 2006.Google Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. Innovación y Compromiso Social. 60 años de Informatización y Crecimiento, 1950–2011. Barcelona: Edicions 62–Caixa d’Estalvis i Pensions de Barcelona, 2012.Google Scholar
Revell, Jack. The Future of Savings Banks. A Study of Spain and the Rest of Europe. Research Papers in Banking and Finance. Bangor: Institute of European Finance, University College of North Wales, 1989.Google Scholar
Scott, Susan V., and Zachariadis, Markos. The Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT): Cooperative Governance for Network Innovation, Standards, and Community. London: Routledge, 2013.Google Scholar
Stearns, David L. Electronic Value Exchange. Origins of the VISA Electronic Payment System. London: Springer, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yates, JoAnne. Structuring the Information Age: Life Insurance and Technology in the Twentieth Century. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Yost, Jeffrey R. Making IT Work. A History of the Computer Services Industry, Cambridge: MIT Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adanero, J. L. “Algunos dinamizadores de la industria española de las telecomunicaciones.” In Crónicas y testimonios de las telecomunicaciones españolas, edited by Rico, C., 2: 585–636. Madrid: JdeJ Editores.Google Scholar
Alberts, Gerard. “Appropriating America: Americanization in the History of European Computing.” Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE, 32, no. 2 (2010): 4–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Appelquist, Joakim. “Technical and Organizational Change in Swedish Banking, 1975–2003.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 71–91. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Balodis, Rihards, and Opmane, Inara. “History of Data Centre Development.” In Reflections on the History of Computing: Preserving Memories and Sharing Stories, edited by Tatnall, Arthur, 180–203. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Carles Maixé-Altés, J.. “Managing Technological Change by Committee: Adoption of Computers in Spanish and British Savings Banks (circa 1960–1988).” Revista de Historia Industrial, 47 (2011): 117–150.Google Scholar
Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Carles Maixé-Altés, J.. “Organizational Change and the Computerization of British and Spanish Savings Banks, circa 1950–1985.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 137–154. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Reid, Robert. “The Development of Cash-Dispensing Technology in the UK.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 33, no. 3 (2011): 32–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, and Wardley, Peter. “Banking on Change: Information Systems and Technologies in UK High Street Banking 1919–69.” Financial History Review, 14, no. 2 (2007): 177–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul. “In Digital We Trust: The Computerisation of Retail Finance in Western Europe and North America.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 3–12. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Haigh, Thomas, and Stearns, David L.. “How the Future Shaped the Past: The Case of the Cashless Society.” Enterprise and Society, 15, no. 1 (2014): 102–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Karlsson, Tobias, and Thodenius, Björn. “The Origins of the Cashless Society: Cash Dispensers, Direct to Account Payments and the Development of Online Real-Time Networks, c. 1965–1985.” Essays in Economic & Business History, 32 (2014): 100–137.Google Scholar
Bergin, T. J., and Haigh, Thomas. “The Commercialization of Database Management Systems, 1969–1983.” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 31, no. 4 (2009): 26–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonin, Hubert. “From Prehistory to the History of Computer in Banking: Mechanization of Data Processing and Accounting Methods in French Banks, circa 1930–1950.” in Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 15–36. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Cortada, James W. “How Did Computing Go Global? The Need for an Answer and a Research Agenda.” Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE, 26, no. 1 (2004): 53–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haigh, Thomas. “Inventing Information Systems: The Systems Men and the Computer, 1950–1968.” Business History Review,75, no. 1 (2001): 15–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haigh, Thomas. “‘A Veritable Bucket of Facts’: Origins of the Data Base Management System.” ACM SIGMOD Record, 35, no. 2 (2006): 33–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heide, Lars. “Retail Banking and the Dynamics of Information Technology in Business Organizations.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Batiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 275–285. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “Enterprise and Philanthropy: The Dilemma of Scottish Savings Banks in the Late Nineteenth Century.” Accounting, Business & Financial History, 19, no. 1 (2009): 39–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “La Opción Tecnológica de las Cajas de Ahorro Españolas antes de Internet, circa 1950–1995. “Investigaciones de Historia Económica—Economic History Research, 9, no. 2 (2013): 175–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “ICT the Nordic Way and European Retail Banking.” In History of Nordic Computing 4, edited by Gram, Chr., Ostergaard, Soren Duus, and Heide, Lars, 249–262. Heidelberg: Springer, 2015.Google Scholar
Maixé-Altés, J. Carles. “Retail Trade and Payment Innovations in the Digital Era: A Cross-Industry and Multi-Country Approach.” Business History (forthcoming).Google Scholar
Martin, Ian. “Britain’s First Computer Centre for Banking: What Did This Building Do?” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 37–70. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Martin, Ian. “Too Far Ahead of Its Time: Barclays, Burroughs, and Real-Time Banking.” Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE, 34, no. 2 (2012): 5–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, Eoin. “Profligacy in the encouragement of thrift’: Savings Banks in Ireland, 1817–1914.” Business History, 56, no. 4 (2014): 569–591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellbring, R. “Nordiska Terminalprojektet. Tekniskt Genombrott Inom Bankvärlden.” Datasaabs Vänners Medlemsblad, 13 (2006): 8–14.Google Scholar
Misa, Thomas J., and Schot, Johan. “Inventing Europe: Technology and the Hidden Integration of Europe.” History and Technology, 21, no. 1 (2005): 1–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paju, Petri, and Haigh, Thomas. “IBM Rebuilds Europe: The Curious Case of the Transnational Typewriter.” Enterprise and Society, 17, no. 2 (2016): 265–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philipson, Graeme. “A Short History of Software.” In Management, Labour Process and Software Developments: Reality Bites, edited by Barrett, Rowena, 13–44. New York: Routledge, 2005.Google Scholar
Ross, Duncan M. “Clubs and Consortia: European Banking Groups as Strategic Alliances.” In European Banks and the American Challenge: Competition and Cooperation in International Banking under Bretton Woods, edited by Battilossi, Stefano and Cassis, Youssef, 135–160. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Ross, Duncan M. “‘Penny Banks’ in Glasgow, 1850–1914.” Financial History Review, 9, no. 1 (2002): 21–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomes, Paul. “Is There an ICT Path in the German Savings Banking Industry? Circa 1900–1970s.” In Technological Innovation in Retail Finance: International Historical Perspectives, edited by Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Carles Maixé-Altés, J., and Thomes, Paul, 119–136. New York: Routledge, 2011.Google Scholar
Vidaurrázaga, I. “La primera red pública del mundo de conmutación de paquetes.” In 25 años de la transmisión de datos, edited by Martín Bernal, O. and Rodríguez Jimenez, M., 137–141. Madrid: Teléfonica Transmisión de Datos SA, 1998.Google Scholar
Wardley, Peter. “The Commercial Banking Industry and Its Part in the Emergence of the Corporate Economy in Britain before 1940.” Journal of Industrial History, 3 (2000): 71–97.Google Scholar
Yates, JoAnne. “Co-evolution of Information-Processing Technology and Use: Interaction between the Life Insurance and Tabulating Industries.” Business History Review, 67, no. 1 (1993): 1–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yost, Jeffrey R. “Materiel Command and the Materiality of Commands: An Historical Examination of the US Air Force, Control Data Corporation, and the Advanced Logistics System.” In History of Computing. Learning from the Past IFIP WG 9.7 International Conference, edited by Tatnall, Arthur, 89–100. Heidelberg: Springer, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, William D. “The ‘DUZ’ General-Purpose Control Panel for the IBM Type 604 Electronic Calculator.” IBM Technical Newsletter, 1 (June 1950): 9–11.Google Scholar
Frank, Ronald A. “IBM Subsystem Allow Series/1 to Emulate 3270 Terminals.” Computer World, 11, no. 26 (1977): 1.Google Scholar
Herrera Codina, Enrique. “Modernización, racionalización, mecanización.” Bulletí de la Associació del Personal de la Caixa de Pensions, 6 (November 1958): 6.Google Scholar
IBM. The 1060 Data Communication System. New York: International Business Machines, 1962.Google Scholar
Sprague, Richard E. “Electronic Funds Transfer in Europe: Their Relevance for the United States.” Savings Banks International, 3 (1977): 29–35.Google Scholar
Tucker, S.G. “The IBM 3090 System: An Overview.” IBM Systems Journal, 25, no. 1 (1986): 4–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
AHC, Historical Archive of “la Caixa,” Barcelona.Google Scholar
CECA Library and Archive, Confederación Española de Cajas de Ahorro (Industry Association of the Spanish Savings Banks), Madrid.Google Scholar
ISBI Archive, World Savings and Retail Banking Institute—European Savings and Retail Banking Group, Brussels.Google Scholar
Esteve, José (director of computer department, CECA, c. 1970s–1990s), interview, Madrid, September 25, 2007.Google Scholar
Lacasta Mussons, Jordi (director of communications, “la Caixa,” c. 1980s–2000s), interview, Barcelona, June 8, 2011.Google Scholar
Munt Alvareda, Josep (IBM marketing executive for “la Caixa” and director of systems IBM-Barcelona, c. 1960s–1980s), interview, Barcelona, June 14, 2011.Google Scholar
Rius Palleiro, Ramón J. (managing director SILC Inmobles, SA, and “la Caixa” Data Center), interview, Barcelona, April 27, 2011.Google Scholar
Ruiz Kaiser, Jesús (head of computer department, c. 1960s, and deputy general manager, c. 1970s–1980s at “la Caixa”), interview, Barcelona, April 13, 2011.Google Scholar