Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T06:25:25.928Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“A Country of Hair”: A Global Story of South Korean Wigs, Korean American Entrepreneurs, African American Hairstyles, and Cold War Industrialization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 March 2020

JASON PETRULIS
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article reinterprets Asian industrialization during the Cold War through the lens of a forgotten commodity: the South Korean wig. Wigs were critical to Asia’s “miraculous” economic growth—a US$1 billion industry in 1970, as well as the number two export in South Korea and number four in Hong Kong at the height of export-oriented industrialization. The article makes a methodological argument, suggesting that we see industrialization differently when we “follow” a commodity transnationally—from the heads of rural South Koreans to the hands of Seoul factory workers to the shoulder bags of Korean American peddlers to the heads of African American women—and when we integrate bottom-up and top-down views of the commodity’s “life.” Only by taking this global perspective can we see how U.S. imperialism shaped the ways people and things moved across borders and oceans and how Cold War commodities were haunted by the lives of the people who touched them.

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 22 , Issue 2 , June 2021 , pp. 368 - 408
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I am grateful for feedback from Engseng Ho and the Social Science Research Council Workshop for Transregional Research, Fa-ti Fan and the New York Conference on Asian Studies, Hannah Kim and the Hagley Library Research Seminar, Robert Hellyer and the Association for Asian Studies Annual Conference, Jim Matray and the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations Annual Conference, Dan Bouk, Jill Harsin, Andrew Rotter, and other colleagues at Colgate University, the Hong Kong Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences at the University of Hong Kong, and two anonymous reviewers; for support and input from Nancy Abelmann, Alan Brinkley, Courtney Fullilove, Eleanor Soo-ah Hyun, Sheila Miyoshi Jager, Travis Johng, Alice Kessler-Harris, Jiyul Kim, Jungwon Kim, Kiwhan Kim, Jenny Wang Medina, and Sonja Thomas; for research and translation assistance from Chunwoong Park, Haeun Lily Kim, Haesel Kim, and Seung-Ah Yang; for insight and expertise from Alyssa Park; and for guidance from Elizabeth LaCouture, who read every draft. I am also grateful for financial support from the Social Science Research Council Postdoctoral Fellowship for Transregional Research with funds provided by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Association for Asian Studies Northeast Asia Council Korean Studies Grant, the Hagley Library, Colgate University, and Oberlin College.

References

Bibliography of Works Cited

Abelmann, Nancy, and Lie, John. Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Amsden, Alice. Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Bak, Sangju [박상주]. I Have Africa: Success Stories of Nine Koreans Who Moved to Africa [나에게는 아프리카가 있다: 한국을 떠나 아프리카로 간 9인의 성공스토리]. Seoul: Bookie, 2014.Google Scholar
Bird, Ayana D., and Tharpe, Lori L.. Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. Rev. ed. New York: St. Griffin’s Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Cumings, Bruce. Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History. New York: Norton, 2005.Google Scholar
Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: Norton, 1999.Google Scholar
Dudziak, Mary L. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
FitzGerald, David S., and Cook-Martín, David. Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, Tanisha. Liberated Threads: Black Women, Style, and the Global Politics of Soul. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gereffi, Gary, and Korzeniewicz, Miguel, eds. Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994.Google Scholar
Gjelten, Tom. A Nation of Nations: A Great American Immigration Story. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015.Google Scholar
Hing, Bill Ong. Making and Remaking Asian America Through Immigration Policy, 1850–1990. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Johnson, Chalmers. MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Kim, Illsoo. New Urban Immigrants: The Korean Community in New York. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krugman, Paul, and Wells, Robin. Macroeconomics. 5th ed. New York: Worth, 2018.Google Scholar
Light, Ivan, and Bonacich, Edna. Immigrant Entrepreneurs: Koreans in Los Angeles, 1965–1982. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. Translated by Fowkes, Ben. London: Penguin, 1990.Google Scholar
Ngai, Mae M. Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Oh, Wonchul. Korean Economic Construction: An Engineering Approach. Vol. 2. [한국형 경제 건설: 엔지니어링 어프로치]. Seoul: Kia Economic Research, 2002.Google Scholar
Robinson, Michael. Korea’s Twentieth Century Odyssey: A Short History. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rostow, W.W. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.Google Scholar
Seoul National University Student Venture Network [서울대학교 학생벤처네트워크]. How Did You Start Up? [어떻게 창업하셨습니까?]. Book 21. [21세기북스]. Seoul, 2014.Google Scholar
Stubbs, Richard. Rethinking Asia’s Economic Miracle: The Political Economy of War, Prosperity, and Crisis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarlo, Emma. Entanglement: The Secret Lives of Hair. London: Oneworld Publications, 2016.Google Scholar
Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt. The Mushroom at the End of the World: On the Possibility of Life in Capitalist Ruins. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Tucker, Nancy Bernkopf. The China Threat: Memories, Myths, and Realities in the 1950s. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weems, Robert E. Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century. New York: NYU Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Woo, Jung-en. Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Woo-Cumings, Meredith. The Developmental State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Diana Ting Liu. Asian Pacific Americans in the Workplace. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 1997.Google Scholar
YH Trade Union [전 YH 노동 조합]. A History of the YH Trade Union [YH노동조합사]. Seoul: Hyeongseongsa, 1984.Google Scholar
Zolberg, Aristide R. A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Akamatsu, Kaname. “A Theory of Unbalanced Growth in the World Economy.” Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 86 (1961): 196–217.Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun. “Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Appadurai, Arjun 3–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balassa, Bela. “The Lessons of East Asian Development: An Overview.” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 36, no. 3 (April 1988): S273–S290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, Kim. “The Beauty of Labor: Imagining Factory Girls in Japan’s New Order.” In The Culture of Japanese Fascism, edited by Tansman, Alan 115–137. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brazinsky, Gregg Andrew. “From Pupil to Model: South Korea and American Development Policy During the Early Park Chung Hee Era.” Diplomatic History, 29, no. 1 (January 2005): 83–115.Google Scholar
Cheang, Sarah. “Roots: Hair and Race.” In Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, edited by Biddle-Perry, Geraldine and Cheang, Sarah 27–42. New York: Berg, 2008.Google Scholar
Chin, Ku-Sup, Yoon, In-Jin, and Smith, David. “Immigrant Small Business and International Economic Linkage: A Case of the Korean Wig Business in Los Angeles, 1968–1977.” International Migration Review, 30, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 485–510.Google Scholar
Cumings, Bruce. “The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy.” International Organization, 38, no. 1 (Winter 1984): 1–40.Google Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia. “Tracking the Militarized Global Sneaker.” In Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link, 19–38. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan. “Institutions and Growth in East Asia.” Studies in Comparative International Development, 38, no. 4 (2004): 53–81.Google Scholar
Kim, Cheehyung Harrison. “North Korea’s Vinalon City: Industrialism as Socialist Everyday Life.” positions, 22, no. 4 (2014): 809–836.Google Scholar
Kim, Jiyoung. “Aid and State Transition in Ghana and South Korea.” Third World Quarterly, 36, no. 7 (2015): 1333–1348.Google Scholar
Kim, Mikyoung. “Gender, Work and Resistance: South Korean Textile Industry in the 1970s.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 41, no. 3 (2011): 415–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Won. “Between Autonomy and Productivity: The Everyday Lives of Korean Women Workers During the Park Chung Hee Era.” In Everyday Life in Mass Dictatorship: Collusion and Evasion, edited by Lüdtke, Alf 202–217. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.Google Scholar
Kim, Wonik. “Rethinking Colonialism and the Origins of the Developmental State in East Asia.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 39, no. 3 (August 2009): 382–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopytoff, Igor. “The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Appadurai, Arjun 64–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1986.Google Scholar
Leach, E.R. “Magical Hair.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 88, no. 2 (July–December 1958): 147–164.Google Scholar
Lee, Nae-Young. “The Automobile Industry.” In The Park Chung Hee Era, edited by Kim, Byung-Kook and Vogel, Ezra F., 296. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2011.Google Scholar
Light, Ivan, Kwuon, Im Jung, and Zhong, Deng. “Korean Rotating Credit Associations in Los Angeles.” Amerasia, 16, no. 1 (1990): 35–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Min, Pyong Gap. “From White-Collar Occupations to Small Business: Korean Immigrants’ Occupational Adjustment.” Sociological Quarterly, 25, no. 3 (Summer 1984): 333–352.Google Scholar
Min, Pyong Gap, and Bozorgmehr, Mehdi. “Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles.” International Migration Review, 34, no. 3 (Autumn 2000): 707–738.Google Scholar
Geun-hye, Park. “A New Kind of Korea: Building Trust Between Seoul and Pyongyang.” Foreign Affairs, 90, no. 5 (September–October 2011): 13–18.Google Scholar
Rodrik, Dani. “Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich.” Economic Policy, 10, no. 20 (April 1995): 53–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rostow, W. W. “The Stages of Economic Growth.” Economic History Review, 12, no. 1 (1959): 1–16.Google Scholar
Santoli, Al. “The Peddler.” In New Americans: An Oral History, 163–183. New York: Viking, 1988.Google Scholar
Sarantakes, Nicholas Evan. “In the Service of Pharaoh? The United States and the Deployment of Korean Troops in Vietnam, 1965–1968.” Pacific Historical Review, 68, no. 3 (August 1999): 425–449.Google Scholar
Sommerfield, Stanley L. “Treasury Regulations Affecting Trade with the Sino-Soviet Bloc and Cuba.” Business Lawyer 19, no. 4 (July 1964): 861–874.Google Scholar
Stevenson, Brenda E. “Latasha Harlins, Soon Ja Du, and Joyce Karlin: A Case Study of Multicultural Female Violence and Justice on the Urban Frontier.” Journal of African American History, 89, no. 2 (Spring 2004): 152–176.Google Scholar
Stubbs, Richard. “What Ever Happened to the East Asian Developmental State? The Unfolding Debate.” Pacific Review, 22, no. 1 (March 2009): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tai, Kam-Chi. “The Hong Kong Wig Industry: A Study of Its Development and Some of the Major Factors for its Recent Decline.” MBA thesis, Lingnan Institute of Business Administration, Chinese University of Hong Kong, June 1972.Google Scholar
Westphal, Larry E. “The Republic of Korea’s Experience with Export-Led Industrial Development.” World Development, 6, no. 3 (1978): 347–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoon, In-Jin. “The Growth of Korean Immigrant Entrepreneurship in Chicago.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 18, no. 2 (1995): 315–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“2-Month Picket Line Closes Harlem Wig Shop.” Jet, November 21, 1963, 23.Google Scholar
“13 Year Old Girl Was the Murderer, Police Say.” GyungHyang News, May 28, 1966, http://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1966052800329207002.Google Scholar
Applegate, Jane. “Space Offers New Start After Riots.” Los Angeles Times, May 8, 1992.Google Scholar
“Black Beauty Suppliers Are Expanding in St. Louis.” STL Black Biz, March 25, 2016, http://stlblackbiz.com/black-beauty-suppliers-are-expanding-in-st-louis.Google Scholar
Cho, Jong-Mu. “Koreans in New York: Yong Ho Jang, the Pioneer of Korean Wig.” Korea Times, March 1, 2012, http://www.koreatimes.com/article/715060.Google Scholar
Sang-Hun, Choe. “Korean Air Flies High on Asia’s Boom.” International Herald Tribune, September 15, 2005.Google Scholar
Jae-suk, Chung. “Nation Built on Sweat of Hard Workers.” JoongAng Ilbo, December 8, 2004, http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2502541.Google Scholar
“Continuing Supply Combs Out Wig Makers.” Importer, October 1971, 53, 56.Google Scholar
Crook, Clive. “A Change in Africa.” Economist, September 23, 1989, S38, Gale Academic OneFile.Google Scholar
Denyer, Simon. “Trump’s Dual Korean Challenges: Talks with North and U.S. Troop Payment Impasse with South.” Washington Post, January 20, 2019, https://wapo.st/2FD72In.Google Scholar
Desmond-Harris, Jenée. “Really? Meme Shames Black Women for Buying Weaves From Koreans,”.” The Root, July 7, 2014, http://www.theroot.com/articles/culture/2014/07/meme_shames_black_women_for_buying_weaves_from_koreans.Google Scholar
Duggan, Paul. “The Story of West Baltimore Can Be Told Through Life at One Intersection.” Washington Post, May 19, 2015.Google Scholar
Han, Hong-Gu. “‘Hungry and Pretty Girls’ Ready to Die for Better Labor Conditions.” Hankyoreh, April 5, 2013, http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/581491.html.Google Scholar
“How Wigs Tell the Story of Modern South Korea.” The Economist, July 29, 2017, https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/07/27/how-wigs-tell-the-story-of-modern-south-korea.Google Scholar
Hyman, Louis. “Why the CVS Burned.” Slate, May 1, 2015, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/crime/2015/05/baltimore_riots_it_wasn_t_thugs_looting_for_profit_it_was_a_protest_against.html.Google Scholar
Jameson, Sam. “Not All Prosper in Seoul’s Boom: S. Korea Urges $20 Monthly Basic Pay.” Los Angeles Times, July 19, 1976.Google Scholar
Jennings, Angel. “How the Killing of Latasha Harlins Changed South L.A., Long Before Black Lives Matter.” Los Angeles Times, March 18, 2016, http://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-0318-latasha-harlins-20160318-story.html.Google Scholar
Joon-Gyu, Choi. Who Earned 800,000 Bags of Rice from Hair” [“머리카락으로쌀 80만가마를벌게한崔俊圭氏”]. Nongwŏn [農園], 4, no. 2 (March 1967): 146–149.Google Scholar
Leary, R. H. “Scalp-Hunting in Kowloon.” Far Eastern Economic Review, July 23, 1964, 177–179.Google Scholar
Luhar, Monica. “‘April’s Way’ Captures Stories of Korean-American Merchants During L.A. Riots.” NBC News, November 9, 2015, http://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/aprils-way-captures-stories-korean-american-merchants-during-l-riots-n456016.Google Scholar
, Kim Chang-woo, , and , Lee Sung-eun, . “Ferguson’s Mobs Torch Two Korean Businesses.” JoongAng Daily, November 28, 2014, http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2997848.Google Scholar
, Kim Subok, . “가족 먹여살리던 어머니 머리카락” [“Our mother’s hair, which provided for our family”]. ohmynews.com, May 8, 2010, accessed at http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0001378644.Google Scholar
Sunghyun, Kim. “Turning Point for the Wig Trade.” Importer, April 1968, 45.Google Scholar
Lawrence, Shammara. “Black-owned Beauty Supply Stores Are on the Rise, and We All Rejoice.” essence.com, April 28, 2016, http://www.essence.com/2016/04/28/black-owned-beauty-supply-stores-on-the-rise.Google Scholar
Lee, Jong Won. “Korean Wig Shop Owners Feel Pinch of Globalization.” Korea Daily/New America Media, September 29, 2014, http://newamericamedia.org/trending/2014/09/korean-wig-shop-owners-feel-pinch-of-globalization.php.Google Scholar
Logan, . “A Bigger Market for Wigs.” Newsday, October 8, 1975.Google Scholar
Maier, Andrea. “Black-owned Salons Fell in Riots.” Los Angeles Times, July 2, 1992.Google Scholar
Mang, Vincent. “HongKong’s Wig Boom.” Hong Kong Standard, June 19, 1970.Google Scholar
Martinez, Al. “A Ghost That Won’t Go Away.” Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1992, http://articles.latimes.com/1992-01-16/local/me-46_1_latasha-harlins.Google Scholar
Miller, H. D. “U.S. Restrictions on H.K.-Made Wigs.” South China Morning Post, January 12, 1966.Google Scholar
“Misses Wig Survey: Can the Problems Be Untangled?” Apparel Statistics, 1972, 22–26.Google Scholar
Moses, Knolly. “A Return to Hair Piece, Finds South Koreans Cashing-In.” New York Echo, April 27, 1974.Google Scholar
Murillo, Mike. “Strangers Help Arlington Man’s Family After Rioters Destroy their Baltimore Business.” wtop.com, May 12, 2015, http://wtop.com/arlington/2015/05/strangers-help-arlington-mans-family-after-rioters-destroy-their-baltimore-business.Google Scholar
Namigadde, Adora. “Black Hair Supplies, Once a Korean Business, Shifts to Black Ownership.” WOSU Public Media, July 26, 2018, https://radio.wosu.org/post/black-hair-supplies-once-korean-business-shifts-black-ownership#stream/0.Google Scholar
Norford, Thomasina. “Wig Wearing Stirs Up a Harlem Picketing Battle.” New York Amsterdam News, September 14, 1963.Google Scholar
Oh, , Wonchul. “Korea’s Standing (15): Chapter 6. Industrial Revolution and Industrial Worker.” Newstown, July 28, 2006, http://www.newstown.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=32878.Google Scholar
, Park Hyong-ki, . “Korean Miracle 70 Years in the Making.” Korea Herald, August 16, 2015, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20150816000246.Google Scholar
Park, Sungwon. “Hidden Stories of the Development Age from Younghoon Baek, President of Korea Industrial Development Institute: ‘We Cut Hair and Caught Mice to Pay Back the Ransom of Miners and Nurses.’” Shindong, 561 (June 1, 2006), http://shindonga.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2006/06/09/200606090500028/200606090500028_5.html.Google Scholar
Queen, Bob. “Wigs No Longer a ‘Fad,’ Take Place Among Necessary Aids to Charm.” Afro-American (Baltimore), May 30, 1964.Google Scholar
“The Revolution Finally Reaches the Wig: Harlem’s Unstraightened Set Flays Wig Wearers, Wig Makers.” New Pittsburgh Courier, August 17, 1963.Google Scholar
Rice, Zak Cheney. “Here’s What the Media Isn’t Telling You About the Protests in Ferguson.” Mic, November 26, 2014, https://mic.com/articles/105132/here-s-what-the-media-isn-t-telling-you-about-the-protests-in-ferguson.Google Scholar
Santos, Lean Alfred. “World Bank to Harness South Korea’s Example for the Developing World.” Devex, December 12, 2013, https://www.devex.com/news/world-bank-to-harness-south-korea-s-example-for-the-developing-world-82494.Google Scholar
Sapong, Emma. “Roots of Tension: Race, Hair, Competition and Black Beauty Stores.” MPR News, April 25, 2017, https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/04/25/black-beauty-shops-korean-suppliers-roots-of-tension-mn.Google Scholar
“Shaving … Wig …‘Country of Hair’” [삭발…가발…‘머리카락의 나라’]. Chosun Ilbo, December 22, 1966Google Scholar
Shim, Elizabeth. “Labor Activist from South Korea’s Dark Past Finally Finds Justice.” UPI.com, July 27, 2015, http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/07/27/Labor-activist-from-South-Koreas-dark-past-finally-finds-justice/1461437739689.Google Scholar
Sochurek, Howard. “South Korea: Success Story in Asia.” National Geographic, March 1969, 301–345.Google Scholar
Keng, Soh Tiang. “US$3.5 Billion by 1976—S. Korea’s Staggering Export Target.” Straits Times, July 3, 1972.Google Scholar
Kook-hee, Son, and Kim, Sarah. “Factory Workers Lose a Champion.” JoongAng Ilbo, November 24, 2015, http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3011918.Google Scholar
“Spare Hair Boom: Milady’s Getting ‘Wigged.’” Jet, August 30, 1962, 42.Google Scholar
Susan, Trudy. “It’s Time: Black Women Need to Take Back the Hair Industry.” ebony.com, July 14, 2014, http://www.ebony.com/style/black-women-need-to-take-back-the-hair-industry-887#axzz4J1YBKH59.Google Scholar
“Top Billing Goes to Wigs as Volume-Profit Winner.” Department Store Management, June 1970, 34–36.Google Scholar
Wood, Tracy. “Down but Not Out.” Los Angeles Times, May 11, 1992.Google Scholar
Choi, Soon Young. Oral history interview, video, from “Archive on Women and Work.” National Women’s History Exhibition Hall, http://eherstory.mogef.go.kr/data/story2.do#showVideoLayer.Google Scholar
Chung, Matthew, Kim, Steve, and Sayres, Rebecca. Postings in response to Kim and Sayres, “Rebuilding After Baltimore Riots.” Gofundme web page, https://www.gofundme.com/j-mart_wigs.Google Scholar
Ranen, , , Aron. Black Hair. Third Wave Media, U.S., 2005, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p96aaTSdrAE.Google Scholar
Seoul Museum of History. “Special Exhibition commemorating the 50-year history of the Guro Industrial Complex: ‘Guro Industrial Complex, the Growth Engine for Korea.’” Poster, http://eng.museum.seoul.kr/eng/board/NR_boardView.do?bbsCd=1037&seq=20150429172030038.Google Scholar
Youn, J. K. Ode to My Father [국제시장]. Seoul: CJ Entertainment, 2014.Google Scholar
Bank of Korea. Economic Statistics Yearbook for years 1961 to 1979.Google Scholar
Bureau of the Census. U.S. Imports for Consumption and General Imports. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979.Google Scholar
Census and Statistics Department. Hong Kong Review of Overseas Trade for years 1966 to 1979.Google Scholar
Commissioner of Labour. 1972–73 Annual Departmental Report. Hong Kong: Government Press, 1973.Google Scholar
Department of Commerce and Industry. Hong Kong Trade Bulletin issues from April 1965 to December 1973.Google Scholar
Director of Commerce and Industry. Annual Departmental Reports for years 1965–66 and 1966–67.Google Scholar
Korea Exchange Bank. “Wig Industry.” Monthly Review, 5, no. 2 (February 1971): 1–6.Google Scholar
Most, Amicus. Expanding Exports: A Case Study of the Korean Experience. Washington, DC: Aid for International Development, 1969.Google Scholar
National Council of Applied Economic Research. Survey of India’s Export Prospects in Hong Kong. New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic Research, 1970.Google Scholar
“Programme for Mr. and Mrs. Robert S. McNamara.” Folder ID 1772562, World Bank Group Archives, http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/653111418322307478/wbg-archives-1772562.pdf.Google Scholar
“Registered U.S. Private Investments in Korea as of September 14, 1965.” Folder “LGP3A Private Enterprise, Private Enterprise Study (Holcomb),” 2, RG 286, USAID, National Archives of the United States at College Park.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, Joseph E. “Some Lessons from the East Asian Miracle.” World Bank Research Observer 11, no. 2 (August 1996): 151–177.Google Scholar
U.S. Embassy Seoul. “Case Study, South Korea: From Aid Recipient to Donor,” May 23, 2013, https://seoul.usembassy.gov/p_rok_60th_econ_18.html.Google Scholar
U.S. House of Representatives. Investigation of Korean-American Relations: Report of the Subcommittee on International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations [October 31, 1978]. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1978.Google Scholar
U.S. Senate Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency. Summary of Emergency Power Statutes: A Working Paper Prepared by the Staff of the Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1973.Google Scholar
U.S. Tariff Commission. “Schedule 1: Animal and Vegetable Products, Volume 13: Hides, Skins, Leather, Feathers, and Miscellaneous Articles of Animal Origin, TC Publication 281.” Summaries of Trade and Tariff Information Prepared in Terms of the Tariff Schedules of the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Tariff Commission, 1969.Google Scholar
USAID and Department of State. “Program Memorandum FY 1969 Korea,” June 1967. Folder “PRM 1 Country Activities FY’67,” RG 286, USAID, National Archives of the United States at College Park.Google Scholar
World Bank Group Archives. Photographs, 1970. File unit 1894103.Google Scholar
“해외수출공업단지 가발공장” [Wig factory in the Guro Industrial Complex for Overseas Exports]. Photograph, 1972. Control number CET0037909_000353520, National Archives of Korea.Google Scholar
Abelmann, Nancy, and Lie, John. Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Amsden, Alice. Asia’s Next Giant: South Korea and Late Industrialization, New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Bak, Sangju [박상주]. I Have Africa: Success Stories of Nine Koreans Who Moved to Africa [나에게는 아프리카가 있다: 한국을 떠나 아프리카로 간 9인의 성공스토리]. Seoul: Bookie, 2014.Google Scholar
Bird, Ayana D., and Tharpe, Lori L.. Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. Rev. ed. New York: St. Griffin’s Press, 2014.Google Scholar
Cumings, Bruce. Korea’s Place in the Sun: A Modern History. New York: Norton, 2005.Google Scholar
Dower, John W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: Norton, 1999.Google Scholar
Dudziak, Mary L. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
FitzGerald, David S., and Cook-Martín, David. Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ford, Tanisha. Liberated Threads: Black Women, Style, and the Global Politics of Soul. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gereffi, Gary, and Korzeniewicz, Miguel, eds. Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994.Google Scholar
Gjelten, Tom. A Nation of Nations: A Great American Immigration Story. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015.Google Scholar
Hing, Bill Ong. Making and Remaking Asian America Through Immigration Policy, 1850–1990. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Johnson, Chalmers. MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1982.Google Scholar
Kim, Illsoo. New Urban Immigrants: The Korean Community in New York. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krugman, Paul, and Wells, Robin. Macroeconomics. 5th ed. New York: Worth, 2018.Google Scholar
Light, Ivan, and Bonacich, Edna. Immigrant Entrepreneurs: Koreans in Los Angeles, 1965–1982. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. Translated by Fowkes, Ben. London: Penguin, 1990.Google Scholar
Ngai, Mae M. Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Oh, Wonchul. Korean Economic Construction: An Engineering Approach. Vol. 2. [한국형 경제 건설: 엔지니어링 어프로치]. Seoul: Kia Economic Research, 2002.Google Scholar
Robinson, Michael. Korea’s Twentieth Century Odyssey: A Short History. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rostow, W.W. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.Google Scholar
Seoul National University Student Venture Network [서울대학교 학생벤처네트워크]. How Did You Start Up? [어떻게 창업하셨습니까?]. Book 21. [21세기북스]. Seoul, 2014.Google Scholar
Stubbs, Richard. Rethinking Asia’s Economic Miracle: The Political Economy of War, Prosperity, and Crisis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarlo, Emma. Entanglement: The Secret Lives of Hair. London: Oneworld Publications, 2016.Google Scholar
Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt. The Mushroom at the End of the World: On the Possibility of Life in Capitalist Ruins. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Tucker, Nancy Bernkopf. The China Threat: Memories, Myths, and Realities in the 1950s. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weems, Robert E. Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century. New York: NYU Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Woo, Jung-en. Race to the Swift: State and Finance in Korean Industrialization. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991.Google Scholar
Woo-Cumings, Meredith. The Developmental State. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Diana Ting Liu. Asian Pacific Americans in the Workplace. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 1997.Google Scholar
YH Trade Union [전 YH 노동 조합]. A History of the YH Trade Union [YH노동조합사]. Seoul: Hyeongseongsa, 1984.Google Scholar
Zolberg, Aristide R. A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Akamatsu, Kaname. “A Theory of Unbalanced Growth in the World Economy.” Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 86 (1961): 196–217.Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun. “Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Appadurai, Arjun 3–63. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balassa, Bela. “The Lessons of East Asian Development: An Overview.” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 36, no. 3 (April 1988): S273–S290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, Kim. “The Beauty of Labor: Imagining Factory Girls in Japan’s New Order.” In The Culture of Japanese Fascism, edited by Tansman, Alan 115–137. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brazinsky, Gregg Andrew. “From Pupil to Model: South Korea and American Development Policy During the Early Park Chung Hee Era.” Diplomatic History, 29, no. 1 (January 2005): 83–115.Google Scholar
Cheang, Sarah. “Roots: Hair and Race.” In Hair: Styling, Culture and Fashion, edited by Biddle-Perry, Geraldine and Cheang, Sarah 27–42. New York: Berg, 2008.Google Scholar
Chin, Ku-Sup, Yoon, In-Jin, and Smith, David. “Immigrant Small Business and International Economic Linkage: A Case of the Korean Wig Business in Los Angeles, 1968–1977.” International Migration Review, 30, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 485–510.Google Scholar
Cumings, Bruce. “The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy.” International Organization, 38, no. 1 (Winter 1984): 1–40.Google Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia. “Tracking the Militarized Global Sneaker.” In Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link, 19–38. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.Google Scholar
Haggard, Stephan. “Institutions and Growth in East Asia.” Studies in Comparative International Development, 38, no. 4 (2004): 53–81.Google Scholar
Kim, Cheehyung Harrison. “North Korea’s Vinalon City: Industrialism as Socialist Everyday Life.” positions, 22, no. 4 (2014): 809–836.Google Scholar
Kim, Jiyoung. “Aid and State Transition in Ghana and South Korea.” Third World Quarterly, 36, no. 7 (2015): 1333–1348.Google Scholar
Kim, Mikyoung. “Gender, Work and Resistance: South Korean Textile Industry in the 1970s.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 41, no. 3 (2011): 415–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Won. “Between Autonomy and Productivity: The Everyday Lives of Korean Women Workers During the Park Chung Hee Era.” In Everyday Life in Mass Dictatorship: Collusion and Evasion, edited by Lüdtke, Alf 202–217. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.Google Scholar
Kim, Wonik. “Rethinking Colonialism and the Origins of the Developmental State in East Asia.” Journal of Contemporary Asia, 39, no. 3 (August 2009): 382–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopytoff, Igor. “The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process.” In The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Appadurai, Arjun 64–91. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1986.Google Scholar
Leach, E.R. “Magical Hair.” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 88, no. 2 (July–December 1958): 147–164.Google Scholar
Lee, Nae-Young. “The Automobile Industry.” In The Park Chung Hee Era, edited by Kim, Byung-Kook and Vogel, Ezra F., 296. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 2011.Google Scholar
Light, Ivan, Kwuon, Im Jung, and Zhong, Deng. “Korean Rotating Credit Associations in Los Angeles.” Amerasia, 16, no. 1 (1990): 35–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Min, Pyong Gap. “From White-Collar Occupations to Small Business: Korean Immigrants’ Occupational Adjustment.” Sociological Quarterly, 25, no. 3 (Summer 1984): 333–352.Google Scholar
Min, Pyong Gap, and Bozorgmehr, Mehdi. “Immigrant Entrepreneurship and Business Patterns: A Comparison of Koreans and Iranians in Los Angeles.” International Migration Review, 34, no. 3 (Autumn 2000): 707–738.Google Scholar
Geun-hye, Park. “A New Kind of Korea: Building Trust Between Seoul and Pyongyang.” Foreign Affairs, 90, no. 5 (September–October 2011): 13–18.Google Scholar
Rodrik, Dani. “Getting Interventions Right: How South Korea and Taiwan Grew Rich.” Economic Policy, 10, no. 20 (April 1995): 53–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rostow, W. W. “The Stages of Economic Growth.” Economic History Review, 12, no. 1 (1959): 1–16.Google Scholar
Santoli, Al. “The Peddler.” In New Americans: An Oral History, 163–183. New York: Viking, 1988.Google Scholar
Sarantakes, Nicholas Evan. “In the Service of Pharaoh? The United States and the Deployment of Korean Troops in Vietnam, 1965–1968.” Pacific Historical Review, 68, no. 3 (August 1999): 425–449.Google Scholar
Sommerfield, Stanley L. “Treasury Regulations Affecting Trade with the Sino-Soviet Bloc and Cuba.” Business Lawyer 19, no. 4 (July 1964): 861–874.Google Scholar
Stevenson, Brenda E. “Latasha Harlins, Soon Ja Du, and Joyce Karlin: A Case Study of Multicultural Female Violence and Justice on the Urban Frontier.” Journal of African American History, 89, no. 2 (Spring 2004): 152–176.Google Scholar
Stubbs, Richard. “What Ever Happened to the East Asian Developmental State? The Unfolding Debate.” Pacific Review, 22, no. 1 (March 2009): 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tai, Kam-Chi. “The Hong Kong Wig Industry: A Study of Its Development and Some of the Major Factors for its Recent Decline.” MBA thesis, Lingnan Institute of Business Administration, Chinese University of Hong Kong, June 1972.Google Scholar
Westphal, Larry E. “The Republic of Korea’s Experience with Export-Led Industrial Development.” World Development, 6, no. 3 (1978): 347–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoon, In-Jin. “The Growth of Korean Immigrant Entrepreneurship in Chicago.” Ethnic and Racial Studies, 18, no. 2 (1995): 315–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“2-Month Picket Line Closes Harlem Wig Shop.” Jet, November 21, 1963, 23.Google Scholar
“13 Year Old Girl Was the Murderer, Police Say.” GyungHyang News, May 28, 1966, http://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1966052800329207002.Google Scholar
Applegate, Jane. “Space Offers New Start After Riots.” Los Angeles Times, May 8, 1992.Google Scholar
“Black Beauty Suppliers Are Expanding in St. Louis.” STL Black Biz, March 25, 2016, http://stlblackbiz.com/black-beauty-suppliers-are-expanding-in-st-louis.Google Scholar
Cho, Jong-Mu. “Koreans in New York: Yong Ho Jang, the Pioneer of Korean Wig.” Korea Times, March 1, 2012, http://www.koreatimes.com/article/715060.Google Scholar
Sang-Hun, Choe. “Korean Air Flies High on Asia’s Boom.” International Herald Tribune, September 15, 2005.Google Scholar
Jae-suk, Chung. “Nation Built on Sweat of Hard Workers.” JoongAng Ilbo, December 8, 2004, http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2502541.Google Scholar
“Continuing Supply Combs Out Wig Makers.” Importer, October 1971, 53, 56.Google Scholar
Crook, Clive. “A Change in Africa.” Economist, September 23, 1989, S38, Gale Academic OneFile.Google Scholar
Denyer, Simon. “Trump’s Dual Korean Challenges: Talks with North and U.S. Troop Payment Impasse with South.” Washington Post, January 20, 2019, https://wapo.st/2FD72In.Google Scholar
Desmond-Harris, Jenée. “Really? Meme Shames Black Women for Buying Weaves From Koreans,”.” The Root, July 7, 2014, http://www.theroot.com/articles/culture/2014/07/meme_shames_black_women_for_buying_weaves_from_koreans.Google Scholar
Duggan, Paul. “The Story of West Baltimore Can Be Told Through Life at One Intersection.” Washington Post, May 19, 2015.Google Scholar
Han, Hong-Gu. “‘Hungry and Pretty Girls’ Ready to Die for Better Labor Conditions.” Hankyoreh, April 5, 2013, http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/581491.html.Google Scholar
“How Wigs Tell the Story of Modern South Korea.” The Economist, July 29, 2017, https://www.economist.com/asia/2017/07/27/how-wigs-tell-the-story-of-modern-south-korea.Google Scholar
Hyman, Louis. “Why the CVS Burned.” Slate, May 1, 2015, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/crime/2015/05/baltimore_riots_it_wasn_t_thugs_looting_for_profit_it_was_a_protest_against.html.Google Scholar
Jameson, Sam. “Not All Prosper in Seoul’s Boom: S. Korea Urges $20 Monthly Basic Pay.” Los Angeles Times, July 19, 1976.Google Scholar
Jennings, Angel. “How the Killing of Latasha Harlins Changed South L.A., Long Before Black Lives Matter.” Los Angeles Times, March 18, 2016, http://www.latimes.com/local/california/la-me-0318-latasha-harlins-20160318-story.html.Google Scholar
Joon-Gyu, Choi. Who Earned 800,000 Bags of Rice from Hair” [“머리카락으로쌀 80만가마를벌게한崔俊圭氏”]. Nongwŏn [農園], 4, no. 2 (March 1967): 146–149.Google Scholar
Leary, R. H. “Scalp-Hunting in Kowloon.” Far Eastern Economic Review, July 23, 1964, 177–179.Google Scholar
Luhar, Monica. “‘April’s Way’ Captures Stories of Korean-American Merchants During L.A. Riots.” NBC News, November 9, 2015, http://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/aprils-way-captures-stories-korean-american-merchants-during-l-riots-n456016.Google Scholar
, Kim Chang-woo, , and , Lee Sung-eun, . “Ferguson’s Mobs Torch Two Korean Businesses.” JoongAng Daily, November 28, 2014, http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2997848.Google Scholar
, Kim Subok, . “가족 먹여살리던 어머니 머리카락” [“Our mother’s hair, which provided for our family”]. ohmynews.com, May 8, 2010, accessed at http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0001378644.Google Scholar
Sunghyun, Kim. “Turning Point for the Wig Trade.” Importer, April 1968, 45.Google Scholar
Lawrence, Shammara. “Black-owned Beauty Supply Stores Are on the Rise, and We All Rejoice.” essence.com, April 28, 2016, http://www.essence.com/2016/04/28/black-owned-beauty-supply-stores-on-the-rise.Google Scholar
Lee, Jong Won. “Korean Wig Shop Owners Feel Pinch of Globalization.” Korea Daily/New America Media, September 29, 2014, http://newamericamedia.org/trending/2014/09/korean-wig-shop-owners-feel-pinch-of-globalization.php.Google Scholar
Logan, . “A Bigger Market for Wigs.” Newsday, October 8, 1975.Google Scholar
Maier, Andrea. “Black-owned Salons Fell in Riots.” Los Angeles Times, July 2, 1992.Google Scholar
Mang, Vincent. “HongKong’s Wig Boom.” Hong Kong Standard, June 19, 1970.Google Scholar
Martinez, Al. “A Ghost That Won’t Go Away.” Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1992, http://articles.latimes.com/1992-01-16/local/me-46_1_latasha-harlins.Google Scholar
Miller, H. D. “U.S. Restrictions on H.K.-Made Wigs.” South China Morning Post, January 12, 1966.Google Scholar
“Misses Wig Survey: Can the Problems Be Untangled?” Apparel Statistics, 1972, 22–26.Google Scholar
Moses, Knolly. “A Return to Hair Piece, Finds South Koreans Cashing-In.” New York Echo, April 27, 1974.Google Scholar
Murillo, Mike. “Strangers Help Arlington Man’s Family After Rioters Destroy their Baltimore Business.” wtop.com, May 12, 2015, http://wtop.com/arlington/2015/05/strangers-help-arlington-mans-family-after-rioters-destroy-their-baltimore-business.Google Scholar
Namigadde, Adora. “Black Hair Supplies, Once a Korean Business, Shifts to Black Ownership.” WOSU Public Media, July 26, 2018, https://radio.wosu.org/post/black-hair-supplies-once-korean-business-shifts-black-ownership#stream/0.Google Scholar
Norford, Thomasina. “Wig Wearing Stirs Up a Harlem Picketing Battle.” New York Amsterdam News, September 14, 1963.Google Scholar
Oh, , Wonchul. “Korea’s Standing (15): Chapter 6. Industrial Revolution and Industrial Worker.” Newstown, July 28, 2006, http://www.newstown.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=32878.Google Scholar
, Park Hyong-ki, . “Korean Miracle 70 Years in the Making.” Korea Herald, August 16, 2015, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20150816000246.Google Scholar
Park, Sungwon. “Hidden Stories of the Development Age from Younghoon Baek, President of Korea Industrial Development Institute: ‘We Cut Hair and Caught Mice to Pay Back the Ransom of Miners and Nurses.’” Shindong, 561 (June 1, 2006), http://shindonga.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2006/06/09/200606090500028/200606090500028_5.html.Google Scholar
Queen, Bob. “Wigs No Longer a ‘Fad,’ Take Place Among Necessary Aids to Charm.” Afro-American (Baltimore), May 30, 1964.Google Scholar
“The Revolution Finally Reaches the Wig: Harlem’s Unstraightened Set Flays Wig Wearers, Wig Makers.” New Pittsburgh Courier, August 17, 1963.Google Scholar
Rice, Zak Cheney. “Here’s What the Media Isn’t Telling You About the Protests in Ferguson.” Mic, November 26, 2014, https://mic.com/articles/105132/here-s-what-the-media-isn-t-telling-you-about-the-protests-in-ferguson.Google Scholar
Santos, Lean Alfred. “World Bank to Harness South Korea’s Example for the Developing World.” Devex, December 12, 2013, https://www.devex.com/news/world-bank-to-harness-south-korea-s-example-for-the-developing-world-82494.Google Scholar
Sapong, Emma. “Roots of Tension: Race, Hair, Competition and Black Beauty Stores.” MPR News, April 25, 2017, https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/04/25/black-beauty-shops-korean-suppliers-roots-of-tension-mn.Google Scholar
“Shaving … Wig …‘Country of Hair’” [삭발…가발…‘머리카락의 나라’]. Chosun Ilbo, December 22, 1966Google Scholar
Shim, Elizabeth. “Labor Activist from South Korea’s Dark Past Finally Finds Justice.” UPI.com, July 27, 2015, http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/07/27/Labor-activist-from-South-Koreas-dark-past-finally-finds-justice/1461437739689.Google Scholar
Sochurek, Howard. “South Korea: Success Story in Asia.” National Geographic, March 1969, 301–345.Google Scholar
Keng, Soh Tiang. “US$3.5 Billion by 1976—S. Korea’s Staggering Export Target.” Straits Times, July 3, 1972.Google Scholar
Kook-hee, Son, and Kim, Sarah. “Factory Workers Lose a Champion.” JoongAng Ilbo, November 24, 2015, http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3011918.Google Scholar
“Spare Hair Boom: Milady’s Getting ‘Wigged.’” Jet, August 30, 1962, 42.Google Scholar
Susan, Trudy. “It’s Time: Black Women Need to Take Back the Hair Industry.” ebony.com, July 14, 2014, http://www.ebony.com/style/black-women-need-to-take-back-the-hair-industry-887#axzz4J1YBKH59.Google Scholar
“Top Billing Goes to Wigs as Volume-Profit Winner.” Department Store Management, June 1970, 34–36.Google Scholar
Wood, Tracy. “Down but Not Out.” Los Angeles Times, May 11, 1992.Google Scholar
Choi, Soon Young. Oral history interview, video, from “Archive on Women and Work.” National Women’s History Exhibition Hall, http://eherstory.mogef.go.kr/data/story2.do#showVideoLayer.Google Scholar
Chung, Matthew, Kim, Steve, and Sayres, Rebecca. Postings in response to Kim and Sayres, “Rebuilding After Baltimore Riots.” Gofundme web page, https://www.gofundme.com/j-mart_wigs.Google Scholar
Ranen, , , Aron. Black Hair. Third Wave Media, U.S., 2005, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p96aaTSdrAE.Google Scholar
Seoul Museum of History. “Special Exhibition commemorating the 50-year history of the Guro Industrial Complex: ‘Guro Industrial Complex, the Growth Engine for Korea.’” Poster, http://eng.museum.seoul.kr/eng/board/NR_boardView.do?bbsCd=1037&seq=20150429172030038.Google Scholar
Youn, J. K. Ode to My Father [국제시장]. Seoul: CJ Entertainment, 2014.Google Scholar
Bank of Korea. Economic Statistics Yearbook for years 1961 to 1979.Google Scholar
Bureau of the Census. U.S. Imports for Consumption and General Imports. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979.Google Scholar
Census and Statistics Department. Hong Kong Review of Overseas Trade for years 1966 to 1979.Google Scholar
Commissioner of Labour. 1972–73 Annual Departmental Report. Hong Kong: Government Press, 1973.Google Scholar
Department of Commerce and Industry. Hong Kong Trade Bulletin issues from April 1965 to December 1973.Google Scholar
Director of Commerce and Industry. Annual Departmental Reports for years 1965–66 and 1966–67.Google Scholar
Korea Exchange Bank. “Wig Industry.” Monthly Review, 5, no. 2 (February 1971): 1–6.Google Scholar
Most, Amicus. Expanding Exports: A Case Study of the Korean Experience. Washington, DC: Aid for International Development, 1969.Google Scholar
National Council of Applied Economic Research. Survey of India’s Export Prospects in Hong Kong. New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic Research, 1970.Google Scholar
“Programme for Mr. and Mrs. Robert S. McNamara.” Folder ID 1772562, World Bank Group Archives, http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/653111418322307478/wbg-archives-1772562.pdf.Google Scholar
“Registered U.S. Private Investments in Korea as of September 14, 1965.” Folder “LGP3A Private Enterprise, Private Enterprise Study (Holcomb),” 2, RG 286, USAID, National Archives of the United States at College Park.Google Scholar
Stiglitz, Joseph E. “Some Lessons from the East Asian Miracle.” World Bank Research Observer 11, no. 2 (August 1996): 151–177.Google Scholar
U.S. Embassy Seoul. “Case Study, South Korea: From Aid Recipient to Donor,” May 23, 2013, https://seoul.usembassy.gov/p_rok_60th_econ_18.html.Google Scholar
U.S. House of Representatives. Investigation of Korean-American Relations: Report of the Subcommittee on International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations [October 31, 1978]. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1978.Google Scholar
U.S. Senate Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency. Summary of Emergency Power Statutes: A Working Paper Prepared by the Staff of the Special Committee on the Termination of the National Emergency. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1973.Google Scholar
U.S. Tariff Commission. “Schedule 1: Animal and Vegetable Products, Volume 13: Hides, Skins, Leather, Feathers, and Miscellaneous Articles of Animal Origin, TC Publication 281.” Summaries of Trade and Tariff Information Prepared in Terms of the Tariff Schedules of the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Tariff Commission, 1969.Google Scholar
USAID and Department of State. “Program Memorandum FY 1969 Korea,” June 1967. Folder “PRM 1 Country Activities FY’67,” RG 286, USAID, National Archives of the United States at College Park.Google Scholar
World Bank Group Archives. Photographs, 1970. File unit 1894103.Google Scholar
“해외수출공업단지 가발공장” [Wig factory in the Guro Industrial Complex for Overseas Exports]. Photograph, 1972. Control number CET0037909_000353520, National Archives of Korea.Google Scholar