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Black Power in the Boardroom: Corporate America, the Sullivan Principles, and the Anti-Apartheid Struggle

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 August 2019

JESSICA ANN LEVY Open the ORCID record for JESSICA ANN LEVY [Opens in a new window]
JESSICA ANN LEVY*
Affiliation:
Jessica Ann Levy is a postdoctoral research associate in the Department of History and the Corruption Laboratory for Ethics, Accountability, and the Rule of Law (CLEAR) at the University of Virginia. She received her Ph.D. in History from Johns Hopkins University. Contact information: Corcoran Department of History, University of Virginia, Nau Hall-South Hall, Charlottesville, VA 22904. E-mail: [email protected].
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Abstract

This article traces the history of General Motors’ first black director, Leon Sullivan, and his involvement with the Sullivan Principles, a corporate code of conduct for U.S. companies doing business in Apartheid South Africa. Building on and furthering the postwar civil rights and anti-colonial struggles, the international anti-apartheid movement brought together students, union workers, and religious leaders in an effort to draw attention to the horrors of Apartheid in South Africa. Whereas many left-leaning activists advocated sanctions and divestment, others, Sullivan among them, helped lead the way in drafting an alternative strategy for American business, one focused on corporate-sponsored black empowerment. Moving beyond both narrow criticisms of Sullivan as a “sellout” and corporate propaganda touting the benefits of the Sullivan Principles, this work draws on corporate and “movement” records to reveal the complex negotiations between white and black executives as they worked to situate themselves in relation to anti-racist movements in the Unites States and South Africa. In doing so, it furthermore reveals the links between modern corporate social responsibility and the fight for Black Power within the corporation.

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 21 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 170 - 209
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2019. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved. 

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References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Nixon, Ron. Selling Apartheid: South Africa’s Global Propaganda War. Auckland Park, Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 2015.Google Scholar
Orleck, Annelise. Storming Caesar’s Palace: How Black Mothers Fought Their Own War on Poverty. Boston: Beacon, 2005.Google Scholar
Ott, Julia C. When Wall Street Met Main Street: The Question for an Investors’ Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendergrast, Mark. For God, Country, and Coca-Cola: The Unauthorized History of the Great American Soft Drink and the Company That Makes It. New York: Scribner’s, 1993.Google Scholar
Pertschuk, Michael. Revolt Against Regulation: The Rise and Pause of the Consumer Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, Elizabeth. Decoding Corporate Camouflage: U.S. Business Support for Apartheid. Washington, DC: Institute for Policy Studies, 1980.Google Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakesh. Setting Global Standards: Guidelines for Creating Codes of Conduct in Multinational Corporations. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003.Google Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakesh, and Williams, Oliver F., Economic Imperatives and Ethical Values in Global Business: The South African Experience and International Codes Today. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slate, Nico, ed. Black Power Beyond Borders: The Global Dimensions of the Black Power Movement. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.Google Scholar
Stone, Clarence. Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946–1988. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Sugrue, Thomas J. The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Leon. Build Brother Build: From Poverty to Economic Power. Philadelphia: Macrae Smith, 1969.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Leon. Moving Mountains: The Principles and Purposes of Leon Sullivan. Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Thompson, Heather Ann. Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor, and Race in a Modern American City. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Van Vleck, Jennifer. Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinson, Robert Trent. The Americans Are Coming: Dreams of African American Liberation in Segregationist South Africa. Columbus: Ohio University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Wagleitner, Reinhold. Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria After the Second World War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, Benjamin C. Lobbying America: The Politics of Business from Nixon to NAFTA. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Williams, Rhonda Y. The Politics of Public Housing: Black Women’s Struggles Against Urban Inequality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Zweigenhaft, Richard L., and William Domhoff, G.. Diversity in the Power Elite: How It Happened, Why It Matters. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.Google Scholar
Beasley, Betsy A. “Service Learning: Oil, International Education, and Texas’s Corporate Cold War.” Diplomatic History, 42, no. 2 (2018): 177–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatelain, Marcia. “The Miracle of the Golden Arches: Race and Fast Food in Los Angeles.” Pacific Historical Review, 85, no. 3 (2016): 325–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Sharon M. “Black Mobility in White Corporations: Up the Corporate Ladder but on a Limb.” Social Problems, 44, no. 1 (1997): 55–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Countryman, Matthew J. “‘From Protest to Politics’: Community Control and Black Independent Politics in Philadelphia, 1965–1984,” Journal of Urban History, 32, no. 6 (2006): 813–861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillan, Stuart L., and Starks, Laura T.. “A Survey of Shareholder Activism: Motivation and Empirical Evidence.” Contemporary Finance Digest, Autumn 1998.Google Scholar
Glac, Katherine. “The Influence of Shareholders on Corporate Social Responsibility.” History of Corporate Responsibility Project Working Paper No. 2. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Ethical Business Cultures, University of St. Thomas, 2010.Google Scholar
Levy, Jessica Ann, “Selling Atlanta: Black Mayoral Politics from Protest to Entrepreneurism, 1973 to 1990.” Journal of Urban History, 41, no. 3 (2015): 420–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Eric J. “The World Is Watching: Polaroid and South Africa.” Enterprise & Society, 7, no. 3 (2006): 520–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Eric J. “Into the Struggle: Confronting Apartheid in the United States and South Africa.” Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado–Boulder, 2009.Google Scholar
Nieftagodien, Noor. “Popular Movements, Contentious Spaces and the ANC, 1943–1956.” In One Hundred Years of the ANC: Debating Liberation Histories Today, edited by Lissoni, Arianna, Soske, Jon, Erlank, Natasha, Nieftagodien, Noor, and Badsha, Omar. Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Pillay, Jerry. “Apartheid in the Holy Land: Theological Reflections on the Israel and/or Palestine Situation from a South African Perspective.” HTS Teologies Studies/Theological Studies, 72, no. 4 (2016).Google Scholar
Pohlandt-McCormick, Helena. “Beer Halls and Bottle Stores.” I Saw a Nightmare. http://www.gutenberg-e.org/pohlandt-mccormick/pmh03e.html#txt1.Google Scholar
Roux, M. C., Nkuhlu, W. L., Thomas, W. H., Manona, C. W., and Whisson, M. G.. The Sullivan Principles at Ford: Audit 2. Johannesburg: South African Institute for Race Relations, February 1981.Google Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakash, and Williams., Oliver “Creating and Implementing Global Codes of Conduct: An Assessment of the Sullivan Principles as a Role Model for Developing International Codes of Conduct—Lessons Learned and Unlearned.” Business and Society Review, 105, no. 2 (2000): 169–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vally, Natasha. “The ‘Model Township’ of Sharpeville: The Absence of Political Action and Organization, 1960–1984.” M.A. research report, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2009.Google Scholar
Welsh, Heidi J. “Shareholder Activism.” Corporate Ethics, 9, no. 12 (1988): 9–11.Google Scholar
Afro-American (Baltimore)Google Scholar
African Business (Randburg)Google Scholar
Atlanta Daily WorldGoogle Scholar
Bay State Banner (Boston)Google Scholar
Chicago Daily DefenderGoogle Scholar
Chicago TribuneGoogle Scholar
Christian Science Monitor (Boston)Google Scholar
Fortune magazine (New York)Google Scholar
Los Angeles TimesGoogle Scholar
New Pittsburgh CourierGoogle Scholar
New York PostGoogle Scholar
New York TimesGoogle Scholar
Oakland PostGoogle Scholar
Philadelphia Daily NewsGoogle Scholar
Philadelphia TribuneGoogle Scholar
Sacramento ObserverGoogle Scholar
The Sun (Baltimore)Google Scholar
Sun Reporter (San Francisco)Google Scholar
Sunday Independent (London)Google Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
Harold R. Sims Papers, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ (Sims Paper)Google Scholar
Leon Howard Sullivan Papers, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript and Rare Books Library, Emory University, Atlanta, GA (Sullivan Papers)Google Scholar
Office of the President: President’s Advisory Committee on South Africa, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript and Rare Books Library, Emory University, Atlanta, GAGoogle Scholar
Oliver Tambo Papers, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa (Oliver Tambo Papers)Google Scholar
Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America Records, Special Collections Research Center, Temple University Libraries, Philadelphia, PA (OICI Papers)Google Scholar
United States–South Africa Leader Exchange Program Papers, 1955–2003, Historical Papers, The Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa (USSALEP Papers)Google Scholar
Adebajo, Adekeye, ed. From Global Apartheid to Global Village: Africa and the United Nations. Durban: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Beinart, William, Delius, Peter, and Trapido, Stanley, eds. Putting a Plough to the Ground: Accumulation and Dispossession in Rural South Africa 1850–1930. Johannesburg: Raven Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Biondi, Martha. The Black Revolution on Campus. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, Patrick. South Africa and Global Apartheid: Continental and International Policies and Politics. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2004.Google Scholar
Borstelmann, Thomas. The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Bundy, Colin. The Rise & Fall of the South African Peasantry. London, UK: James Currey, 1988.Google Scholar
Carroll, Archie B., Lipartito, Kenneth J., Post, James E., and Wehane, Patricia H.. Corporate Responsibility: The American Experience. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Lizabeth. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage, 2003.Google Scholar
Collins, Sharon M. Black Corporate Executives: The Making and Breaking of a Black Middle Class. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Connolly, N. D. B. A World More Concrete: Real Estate and the Re-making of Jim Crow Florida. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culverson, Donald R. Contesting Apartheid: U.S. Activism, 1960–1987. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Danaher, Kevin. In Whose Interest? A Guide to U.S.-South Africa Relations. Washington, DC: Institute for Policy Studies, 1984.Google Scholar
Davis, Uri. Apartheid Israel: Possibilities for the Struggle Within. New York: Zed Books; Pretoria: Media Review Network, 2003.Google Scholar
Evans, Ivan. Bureaucracy and Race: Native Administration in South Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farley, Reynolds, and Allen, Walter R.. The Color Line and the Quality of Life in America . New York: Russell Sage, 1987.Google Scholar
Feinstein, Charles H. An Economic History of South Africa: Conquest, Discrimination, and Development. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fergus, Devin. Liberalism, Black Power, and the Making of American Politics, 1965–1980. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Ferguson, Karen. Top Down: The Ford Foundation, Black Power and the Reinvention of Racial Liberalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fredrickson, George. White Supremacy: A Comparative Study of American and South African History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.Google Scholar
Gerhart, Gail M. Black Power in South Africa: The Evolution of an Ideology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grady-Willis, Winston A. Challenging U.S. Apartheid: Atlanta and Black Struggles for Human Rights, 1960–1977. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higginson, John. Collective Violence and the Agrarian Origins of South African Apartheid, 1900–1948. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, Laura Warren, and Rabig, Julia, eds. The Business of Black Power: Community Development, Capitalism, and Corporate Responsibility in Postwar America. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Hirschmann, David. Changing Attitudes of Black South Africans Toward the United States. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Hull, Richard W. American Enterprise in South Africa: Historical Dimensions of Engagement and Disengagement. New York: New York University Press, 1990.Google Scholar
Irons, Edward D., and Moore, Gilbert W.. Black Managers: The Case of the Banking Industry. New York: Praeger, 1985.Google Scholar
Lodge, Tom. Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945. London: Longman, 1983.Google Scholar
MacLaury, Judson. To Advance Their Opportunities: Federal Policies Toward African American Workers from Worl War I to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Knoxville: Newfound Press, University of Tennessee Libraries, 2008.Google Scholar
Magaziner, Daniel. The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in Southern Africa, 1968– 1977 . Columbus: Ohio University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Mamdani, Mahmood. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Massey, Douglas S., and Denton, Nancy A.. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Massie, Robert Kinloch. Loosing the Bonds: The United States and South Africa in the Apartheid Years. New York: Nan A. Talese, 1997.Google Scholar
McKee, Guian A. The Problem of Jobs: Liberalism, Race, and Deindustrialization in Philadelphia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Nancy. Jimmy Carter in Africa: Race and the Cold War. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Murch, Donna Jean. Living for the City: Migration, Education, and the Rise of the Black Panther Party in Oakland, California . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Nadel, Mark V. The Politics of Consumer Protection. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971.Google Scholar
National Black National Economic Conference, and James Forman. Black Manifesto: Presentation by James Forman: delivered and adopted by the National Black Economic Development Conference in Detroit, Michigan, on April 26, 1969. Place of publication not identified. Publisher not identifiedGoogle Scholar
Nesbitt, Francis Njubi. Race for Sanctions: African Americans Against Apartheid, 1946–1994. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Nixon, Ron. Selling Apartheid: South Africa’s Global Propaganda War. Auckland Park, Johannesburg: Jacana Media, 2015.Google Scholar
Orleck, Annelise. Storming Caesar’s Palace: How Black Mothers Fought Their Own War on Poverty. Boston: Beacon, 2005.Google Scholar
Ott, Julia C. When Wall Street Met Main Street: The Question for an Investors’ Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pendergrast, Mark. For God, Country, and Coca-Cola: The Unauthorized History of the Great American Soft Drink and the Company That Makes It. New York: Scribner’s, 1993.Google Scholar
Pertschuk, Michael. Revolt Against Regulation: The Rise and Pause of the Consumer Movement. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, Elizabeth. Decoding Corporate Camouflage: U.S. Business Support for Apartheid. Washington, DC: Institute for Policy Studies, 1980.Google Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakesh. Setting Global Standards: Guidelines for Creating Codes of Conduct in Multinational Corporations. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003.Google Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakesh, and Williams, Oliver F., Economic Imperatives and Ethical Values in Global Business: The South African Experience and International Codes Today. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slate, Nico, ed. Black Power Beyond Borders: The Global Dimensions of the Black Power Movement. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.Google Scholar
Stone, Clarence. Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946–1988. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Sugrue, Thomas J. The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Leon. Build Brother Build: From Poverty to Economic Power. Philadelphia: Macrae Smith, 1969.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Leon. Moving Mountains: The Principles and Purposes of Leon Sullivan. Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Thompson, Heather Ann. Whose Detroit? Politics, Labor, and Race in a Modern American City. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Van Vleck, Jennifer. Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Century. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vinson, Robert Trent. The Americans Are Coming: Dreams of African American Liberation in Segregationist South Africa. Columbus: Ohio University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Wagleitner, Reinhold. Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria After the Second World War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Waterhouse, Benjamin C. Lobbying America: The Politics of Business from Nixon to NAFTA. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Williams, Rhonda Y. The Politics of Public Housing: Black Women’s Struggles Against Urban Inequality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Zweigenhaft, Richard L., and William Domhoff, G.. Diversity in the Power Elite: How It Happened, Why It Matters. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006.Google Scholar
Beasley, Betsy A. “Service Learning: Oil, International Education, and Texas’s Corporate Cold War.” Diplomatic History, 42, no. 2 (2018): 177–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatelain, Marcia. “The Miracle of the Golden Arches: Race and Fast Food in Los Angeles.” Pacific Historical Review, 85, no. 3 (2016): 325–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Sharon M. “Black Mobility in White Corporations: Up the Corporate Ladder but on a Limb.” Social Problems, 44, no. 1 (1997): 55–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Countryman, Matthew J. “‘From Protest to Politics’: Community Control and Black Independent Politics in Philadelphia, 1965–1984,” Journal of Urban History, 32, no. 6 (2006): 813–861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillan, Stuart L., and Starks, Laura T.. “A Survey of Shareholder Activism: Motivation and Empirical Evidence.” Contemporary Finance Digest, Autumn 1998.Google Scholar
Glac, Katherine. “The Influence of Shareholders on Corporate Social Responsibility.” History of Corporate Responsibility Project Working Paper No. 2. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Ethical Business Cultures, University of St. Thomas, 2010.Google Scholar
Levy, Jessica Ann, “Selling Atlanta: Black Mayoral Politics from Protest to Entrepreneurism, 1973 to 1990.” Journal of Urban History, 41, no. 3 (2015): 420–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Eric J. “The World Is Watching: Polaroid and South Africa.” Enterprise & Society, 7, no. 3 (2006): 520–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morgan, Eric J. “Into the Struggle: Confronting Apartheid in the United States and South Africa.” Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado–Boulder, 2009.Google Scholar
Nieftagodien, Noor. “Popular Movements, Contentious Spaces and the ANC, 1943–1956.” In One Hundred Years of the ANC: Debating Liberation Histories Today, edited by Lissoni, Arianna, Soske, Jon, Erlank, Natasha, Nieftagodien, Noor, and Badsha, Omar. Johannesburg: Wits University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Pillay, Jerry. “Apartheid in the Holy Land: Theological Reflections on the Israel and/or Palestine Situation from a South African Perspective.” HTS Teologies Studies/Theological Studies, 72, no. 4 (2016).Google Scholar
Pohlandt-McCormick, Helena. “Beer Halls and Bottle Stores.” I Saw a Nightmare. http://www.gutenberg-e.org/pohlandt-mccormick/pmh03e.html#txt1.Google Scholar
Roux, M. C., Nkuhlu, W. L., Thomas, W. H., Manona, C. W., and Whisson, M. G.. The Sullivan Principles at Ford: Audit 2. Johannesburg: South African Institute for Race Relations, February 1981.Google Scholar
Sethi, S. Prakash, and Williams., Oliver “Creating and Implementing Global Codes of Conduct: An Assessment of the Sullivan Principles as a Role Model for Developing International Codes of Conduct—Lessons Learned and Unlearned.” Business and Society Review, 105, no. 2 (2000): 169–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vally, Natasha. “The ‘Model Township’ of Sharpeville: The Absence of Political Action and Organization, 1960–1984.” M.A. research report, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2009.Google Scholar
Welsh, Heidi J. “Shareholder Activism.” Corporate Ethics, 9, no. 12 (1988): 9–11.Google Scholar
Afro-American (Baltimore)Google Scholar
African Business (Randburg)Google Scholar
Atlanta Daily WorldGoogle Scholar
Bay State Banner (Boston)Google Scholar
Chicago Daily DefenderGoogle Scholar
Chicago TribuneGoogle Scholar
Christian Science Monitor (Boston)Google Scholar
Fortune magazine (New York)Google Scholar
Los Angeles TimesGoogle Scholar
New Pittsburgh CourierGoogle Scholar
New York PostGoogle Scholar
New York TimesGoogle Scholar
Oakland PostGoogle Scholar
Philadelphia Daily NewsGoogle Scholar
Philadelphia TribuneGoogle Scholar
Sacramento ObserverGoogle Scholar
The Sun (Baltimore)Google Scholar
Sun Reporter (San Francisco)Google Scholar
Sunday Independent (London)Google Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
Harold R. Sims Papers, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ (Sims Paper)Google Scholar
Leon Howard Sullivan Papers, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript and Rare Books Library, Emory University, Atlanta, GA (Sullivan Papers)Google Scholar
Office of the President: President’s Advisory Committee on South Africa, Stuart A. Rose Manuscript and Rare Books Library, Emory University, Atlanta, GAGoogle Scholar
Oliver Tambo Papers, University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa (Oliver Tambo Papers)Google Scholar
Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America Records, Special Collections Research Center, Temple University Libraries, Philadelphia, PA (OICI Papers)Google Scholar
United States–South Africa Leader Exchange Program Papers, 1955–2003, Historical Papers, The Library, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa (USSALEP Papers)Google Scholar