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The Anywhere, Anytime Market: The 800-Number, Direct Marketing, and the New Networks of Consumption

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 May 2018

RICHARD K. POPP
RICHARD K. POPP*
Affiliation:
Richard K. Popp is an associate professor of Media Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. His work, which explores the intersection of communications and consumer capitalism in twentieth-century America, has appeared in journals such as Technology & Culture, Journal of American History, and Book History, and he is the author of The Holiday Makers: Magazines, Advertising, and Mass Tourism in Postwar America. Contact info: Department of Journalism, Advertising, and Media Studies, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, WI, USA, 53211. E-mail: [email protected]
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Abstract

This article explores how 800-service, or toll-free long-distance (In-WATS) lines, became an institutionalized part of direct marketing in the United States between the mid-1960s and early 1980s. Introduced by AT&T in 1967, 800-service attracted immediate attention in mail-order circles, where marketers saw it as means of automating long-distance selling and catering to an increasingly decentralized and credit-dependent populace. Although early initiatives, like that of catalog giant Aldens, fell flat, 800-service gained traction by the mid-1970s as a call-center industry developed and mail-order operations began using In-WATS lines in combination with bank-issued credit cards and private delivery services. By decade’s end, this trio of networks—long-distance telephony, credit/payment, and parcel delivery—were densely interwoven, forming the infrastructural basis for a new kind of “anywhere, anytime,” upscale shopping exemplified by the newly refashioned Spiegel. Ultimately, the article helps historicize the rise of electronic retailing and the marketization of telecommunications infrastructure.

Type
Article
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 19 , Issue 3 , September 2018 , pp. 702 - 732
Copyright
Copyright © The Author 2018. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved. 

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References

Bibliography of Works Cited

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Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Random House, 1970.Google Scholar
Toll-Free Digest. Claverack, NY: Toll Free Digest Company, 1976.Google Scholar
Van Vleck, Jennifer. Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Ascendancy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Von Auw, Alvin. Heritage and Destiny: Reflections on a Bell System in Transition. New York: Praeger, 1983.Google Scholar
Witek, John. Response Television: Combat Advertising of the 1980s. Chicago: Crain Books, 1981.Google Scholar
Zelizer, Viviana A. Economic Lives: How Culture Shapes the Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Zukin, Sharon. Point of Purchase: How Shopping Changed American Culture. New York: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Acland, Charles. “Consumer Electronics and the Building of an Entertainment Infrastructure.” In Signal Traffic: Critical Studies of Media Infrastructures, edited by Parks, Lisa and Starosielski, Nicole, 246–278. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Thomas Haigh, David L. Stearns. “How the Future Shaped the Past: The Case of the Cashless Society.” Enterprise & Society 15, no. 1 (2014): 103–131.Google Scholar
Beckert, Jens. “Where Do Prices Come From? Sociological Approaches to Price Formation.” Socio-Economic Review 9, no. 4 (2011): 757–786.Google Scholar
Burch, Jessica K. “‘Soap and Hope’: Direct Sales and the Culture of Work and Capitalism in Postwar America.” Enterprise & Society 17, no. 4 (2016), 741–751.Google Scholar
Case, Andrew N. “The Solid Gold Mailbox”: Direct Mail the Changing Nature of Buying and Selling in the Postwar United States.” History of Retailing and Consumption 1, no. 1 (2015): 28–46.Google Scholar
Doody, Alton F., and Davidson, William R.. “Next Revolution in Retailing.” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1967: 4–20, 188.Google Scholar
Downey, Greg. “Commentary: The Place of Labor in the History of Information-Technology Revolutions.” International Review of Social History 48, no. S11 (2003): 225–261.Google Scholar
Edwards, Paul N. “Infrastructure and Modernity: Force, Time, and Social Organization in the History of Sociotechnical Systems.” In Modernity and Technology, edited by Misa, Thomas J., Brey, Philip, and Feenberg, Andrew, 185–225. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Hoke, Henry R. Jr. “Direct Marketing Chronology.” In Telephone Marketing: How to Build Your Business by Telephone, edited by Roman, Murray, 210–211. New York: McGraw Hill, 1976.Google Scholar
Larkin, Brian. “The Politics and Poetics of Infrastructure.” Annual Review of Anthropology 42 (2013): 146–167.Google Scholar
Lipartito, Kenneth. “Picturephone and the Information Age: The Social Meaning of Failure.” Technology & Culture 44, no. 1 (2003): 50–81.Google Scholar
Levitt, Theodore. “Marketing Myopia.” Harvard Business Review 38, no. 4 (1960): 45–56.Google Scholar
Levitt, Theodore. “Production-Line Approach to Service.” Harvard Business Review 50, no. 5 (1972): 41–52.Google Scholar
Levitt, Theodore. “The Industrialization of Service.” Harvard Business Review 54, no. 5 (1976): 63–74.Google Scholar
May, Eleanor G. “The Outlook for Non-Store Retailing.” In The Growth of Non-Store Retailing: Implications for Retailers, Manufacturers, and Public Policy Makers, 6–18. New York: Institute of Retail Management, New York University, 1979.Google Scholar
Mayer, Martin. “The Telephone and the Uses of Time.” In The Social Impact of the Telephone, edited by de Sola Pool, Ithiel, 225–245. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Parks, Lisa. “Stuff You Can Kick: Toward a Theory of Media Infrastructures.” In In Between Humanities and the Digital, edited by Svensson, Patrik and Goldberg, Theo, 355–373. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Swartz, Lana. “Gendered Transactions: Identity and Payment at Midcentury.” WSQ: Women’s Studies Quarterly 42, nos. 1 & 2 (2014): 137–153.Google Scholar
Taylor, Thayer C. “Marketing in the Age of Automation: An Interview with John Diebold.” In Computer in Marketing, edited by Taylor, Thayer C., 85–90. New York: Sales Management, 1970.Google Scholar
Taylor, Thayer C. “The Future of the Computer in Marketing.” In Computer in Marketing, edited by Taylor, Thayer C., 1–12. New York: Sales Management, 1970.Google Scholar
Administrative ManagementGoogle Scholar
Advertising AgeGoogle Scholar
Bell Telephone MagazineGoogle Scholar
Business WeekGoogle Scholar
Chicago TribuneGoogle Scholar
Communication NewsGoogle Scholar
DatamationGoogle Scholar
Direct MarketingGoogle Scholar
ForbesGoogle Scholar
InfosystemsGoogle Scholar
Los Angeles TimesGoogle Scholar
Marketing NewsGoogle Scholar
Marketing/CommunicationsGoogle Scholar
Media Industry NewsletterGoogle Scholar
New York TimesGoogle Scholar
Reporter of Direct Mail AdvertisingGoogle Scholar
Sales Management (changed its name to Sales & Marketing Management in 1975)Google Scholar
Sales & Marketing ManagementGoogle Scholar
Saturday Evening PostGoogle Scholar
Seattle TimesGoogle Scholar
Southern Advertising/MarketsGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
TelephonyGoogle Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
ZipGoogle Scholar
Baran, Paul, and Lipinski, Andrew J.. The Future of the Telephone Industry 1970–1985. R-20, Institute for the Future, Menlo Park, CA, 1971.Google Scholar
FCC, Decision, FCC Docket 80-777, December 29, 1980, Federal Communications Commission Reports, 84, 2d, 158-228.Google Scholar
Lazaros, Esther. The Effectiveness of 800 Numbers in Direct Mail Catalogs. New York: Direct Marketing Association, 1983.Google Scholar
McKinsey & Company. Unlocking the Computer’s Profit Potential: A Research Report to Management. New York: McKinsey, 1968.Google Scholar
National Research Council. Computer Chips and Paper Clips: Technology and Women’s Employment, Vol. 1. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Rich, Stuart. Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers. Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University: Boston, 1963.Google Scholar
Seibert, Donald V. “Reaching the Consumer.” Documentation, 6th International Direct Marketing and Mail Order Symposium, Zurich, 1974.Google Scholar
Todd, Kenneth P. Jr. A Capsule History of the Bell System. New York: AT&T, 1972.Google Scholar
U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1976. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.Google Scholar
Baker Library, Harvard Business School, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Hartman, John W. Center for Sales, Advertising, and Marketing History, David M. Rubenstein Library, Duke University, Durham, NC.Google Scholar
Special Collections, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison.Google Scholar
Adams, Stephen B., and Butler, Orville R.. Manufacturing the Future: A History of Western Electric. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Aneesh, A. Neutral Accent: How Language, Labor, and Life Become Global. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, Peter C. In the Watches of the Night: Life in the Nocturnal City, 1820–1930. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Blaszczyk, Regina Lee. American Consumer Society, 1865–2005: From Hearth to HDTV. Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 2009.Google Scholar
Boettinger, H. M. The Telephone Book: Bell, Watson, Vail, and American Life, 1876–1976. Croton-on-Hudson, NY: Riverwood, 1977.Google Scholar
Bowker, Geoffrey C., and Star, Susan Leigh. Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Brooks, John. Telephone: The First Hundred Years. New York: Harper & Row, 1976.Google Scholar
Campbell-Kelly, Martin. From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog: A History of the Software Industry. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Cross, Gary. An All-Consuming Century: Why Commercialism Won in Modern America. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Cohen, Lizabeth. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage, 2004.Google Scholar
Davis, Joshua Clark. From Head Shops to Whole Foods: The Rise and Fall of Activist Entrepreneurs. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emmet, Boris, and Jeuck, John E.. Catalogues and Counters: A History of Sears, Roebuck and Company. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950.Google Scholar
Fischer, Claude S. America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.Google Scholar
Gallagher, Winifred. How the Post Office Created America: A History. New York: Penguin Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Hamilton, Shane. Trucking Country: The Road to America’s Wal-Mart Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Hale, Grace Elizabeth. Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1880–1940. New York: Vintage, 1998.Google Scholar
Hochschild, Arlie. The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home. New York: Viking, 1989.Google Scholar
Howard, Vicki. From Main Street to Mall: The Rise and Fall of the American Department Store. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, Thomas P. Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.Google Scholar
Hyman, Louis. Debtor Nation: The History of America in Red Ink. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Isenberg, Alison. Downtown America: A History of the Place and the People Who Made It. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.Google Scholar
John, Richard R. Network Nation: Inventing American Telecommunications. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larkin, Brian. Signal and Noise: Media, Infrastructure, and Urban Culture in Nigeria. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lauer, Josh. Creditworthy: A History of Consumer Surveillance and Financial Identity in America. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Levinson, Marc. The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Lichtenstein, Nelson. The Retail Revolution: How Wal-Mart Created a Brave New World of Business. New York: Picador, 2009.Google Scholar
MacDougall, Robert. The People’s Network: The Political Economy of the Telephone in the Gilded Age. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manning, Harvey. REI: 50 Years of Climbing Together. Seattle: REI Press, 1988.Google Scholar
McCraw, Thomas K. Prophets of Regulation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.Google Scholar
Moreton, Bethany. To Serve God and Wal-Mart: The Making of Christian Free Enterprise. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Palm, Michael. Technologies of Consumer Labor: A History of Self-Service. New York: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Roman, Murray. Telephone Marketing: How to Build Your Business by Telephone. New York: McGraw Hill, 1976.Google Scholar
Schiller, Dan. Telematics and Government. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1982.Google Scholar
Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. Disenchanted Night: The Industrialisation of Light in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Berg, 1988.Google Scholar
Stearns, David L. Electronic Value Exchange: Origins of the VISA Electronic Payment System. London: Springer, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Bob. Successful Direct Marketing Methods. Chicago: Crain, 1975.Google Scholar
Sugarman, Joseph. Success Forces. Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1980.Google Scholar
Taylor, Thayer C. The Computer in Marketing. Rev.. ed. New York: Sales Management, 1970.Google Scholar
Temin, Peter. The Fall of the Bell System. With Louis Galambos. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toffler, Alvin. Future Shock. New York: Random House, 1970.Google Scholar
Toll-Free Digest. Claverack, NY: Toll Free Digest Company, 1976.Google Scholar
Van Vleck, Jennifer. Empire of the Air: Aviation and the American Ascendancy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Von Auw, Alvin. Heritage and Destiny: Reflections on a Bell System in Transition. New York: Praeger, 1983.Google Scholar
Witek, John. Response Television: Combat Advertising of the 1980s. Chicago: Crain Books, 1981.Google Scholar
Zelizer, Viviana A. Economic Lives: How Culture Shapes the Economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Zukin, Sharon. Point of Purchase: How Shopping Changed American Culture. New York: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Acland, Charles. “Consumer Electronics and the Building of an Entertainment Infrastructure.” In Signal Traffic: Critical Studies of Media Infrastructures, edited by Parks, Lisa and Starosielski, Nicole, 246–278. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Bátiz-Lazo, Bernardo, Thomas Haigh, David L. Stearns. “How the Future Shaped the Past: The Case of the Cashless Society.” Enterprise & Society 15, no. 1 (2014): 103–131.Google Scholar
Beckert, Jens. “Where Do Prices Come From? Sociological Approaches to Price Formation.” Socio-Economic Review 9, no. 4 (2011): 757–786.Google Scholar
Burch, Jessica K. “‘Soap and Hope’: Direct Sales and the Culture of Work and Capitalism in Postwar America.” Enterprise & Society 17, no. 4 (2016), 741–751.Google Scholar
Case, Andrew N. “The Solid Gold Mailbox”: Direct Mail the Changing Nature of Buying and Selling in the Postwar United States.” History of Retailing and Consumption 1, no. 1 (2015): 28–46.Google Scholar
Doody, Alton F., and Davidson, William R.. “Next Revolution in Retailing.” Harvard Business Review, May–June 1967: 4–20, 188.Google Scholar
Downey, Greg. “Commentary: The Place of Labor in the History of Information-Technology Revolutions.” International Review of Social History 48, no. S11 (2003): 225–261.Google Scholar
Edwards, Paul N. “Infrastructure and Modernity: Force, Time, and Social Organization in the History of Sociotechnical Systems.” In Modernity and Technology, edited by Misa, Thomas J., Brey, Philip, and Feenberg, Andrew, 185–225. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Hoke, Henry R. Jr. “Direct Marketing Chronology.” In Telephone Marketing: How to Build Your Business by Telephone, edited by Roman, Murray, 210–211. New York: McGraw Hill, 1976.Google Scholar
Larkin, Brian. “The Politics and Poetics of Infrastructure.” Annual Review of Anthropology 42 (2013): 146–167.Google Scholar
Lipartito, Kenneth. “Picturephone and the Information Age: The Social Meaning of Failure.” Technology & Culture 44, no. 1 (2003): 50–81.Google Scholar
Levitt, Theodore. “Marketing Myopia.” Harvard Business Review 38, no. 4 (1960): 45–56.Google Scholar
Levitt, Theodore. “Production-Line Approach to Service.” Harvard Business Review 50, no. 5 (1972): 41–52.Google Scholar
Levitt, Theodore. “The Industrialization of Service.” Harvard Business Review 54, no. 5 (1976): 63–74.Google Scholar
May, Eleanor G. “The Outlook for Non-Store Retailing.” In The Growth of Non-Store Retailing: Implications for Retailers, Manufacturers, and Public Policy Makers, 6–18. New York: Institute of Retail Management, New York University, 1979.Google Scholar
Mayer, Martin. “The Telephone and the Uses of Time.” In The Social Impact of the Telephone, edited by de Sola Pool, Ithiel, 225–245. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Parks, Lisa. “Stuff You Can Kick: Toward a Theory of Media Infrastructures.” In In Between Humanities and the Digital, edited by Svensson, Patrik and Goldberg, Theo, 355–373. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Swartz, Lana. “Gendered Transactions: Identity and Payment at Midcentury.” WSQ: Women’s Studies Quarterly 42, nos. 1 & 2 (2014): 137–153.Google Scholar
Taylor, Thayer C. “Marketing in the Age of Automation: An Interview with John Diebold.” In Computer in Marketing, edited by Taylor, Thayer C., 85–90. New York: Sales Management, 1970.Google Scholar
Taylor, Thayer C. “The Future of the Computer in Marketing.” In Computer in Marketing, edited by Taylor, Thayer C., 1–12. New York: Sales Management, 1970.Google Scholar
Administrative ManagementGoogle Scholar
Advertising AgeGoogle Scholar
Bell Telephone MagazineGoogle Scholar
Business WeekGoogle Scholar
Chicago TribuneGoogle Scholar
Communication NewsGoogle Scholar
DatamationGoogle Scholar
Direct MarketingGoogle Scholar
ForbesGoogle Scholar
InfosystemsGoogle Scholar
Los Angeles TimesGoogle Scholar
Marketing NewsGoogle Scholar
Marketing/CommunicationsGoogle Scholar
Media Industry NewsletterGoogle Scholar
New York TimesGoogle Scholar
Reporter of Direct Mail AdvertisingGoogle Scholar
Sales Management (changed its name to Sales & Marketing Management in 1975)Google Scholar
Sales & Marketing ManagementGoogle Scholar
Saturday Evening PostGoogle Scholar
Seattle TimesGoogle Scholar
Southern Advertising/MarketsGoogle Scholar
Washington PostGoogle Scholar
TelephonyGoogle Scholar
Wall Street JournalGoogle Scholar
ZipGoogle Scholar
Baran, Paul, and Lipinski, Andrew J.. The Future of the Telephone Industry 1970–1985. R-20, Institute for the Future, Menlo Park, CA, 1971.Google Scholar
FCC, Decision, FCC Docket 80-777, December 29, 1980, Federal Communications Commission Reports, 84, 2d, 158-228.Google Scholar
Lazaros, Esther. The Effectiveness of 800 Numbers in Direct Mail Catalogs. New York: Direct Marketing Association, 1983.Google Scholar
McKinsey & Company. Unlocking the Computer’s Profit Potential: A Research Report to Management. New York: McKinsey, 1968.Google Scholar
National Research Council. Computer Chips and Paper Clips: Technology and Women’s Employment, Vol. 1. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1986.Google Scholar
Rich, Stuart. Shopping Behavior of Department Store Customers. Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University: Boston, 1963.Google Scholar
Seibert, Donald V. “Reaching the Consumer.” Documentation, 6th International Direct Marketing and Mail Order Symposium, Zurich, 1974.Google Scholar
Todd, Kenneth P. Jr. A Capsule History of the Bell System. New York: AT&T, 1972.Google Scholar
U.S. Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1976. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.Google Scholar
Baker Library, Harvard Business School, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Hartman, John W. Center for Sales, Advertising, and Marketing History, David M. Rubenstein Library, Duke University, Durham, NC.Google Scholar
Special Collections, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison.Google Scholar