Sino-US educational institution and EMI

As the global popularity of English propels a demand for English Medium Instruction (EMI) in higher education, there emerges a need to analyze how this transition intersects with local language policies and multilingualism, particularly within the dynamic socio-linguistic landscape of the Sino-US educational framework (Maiworm & Wächter, Reference Maiworm and Wächter2014). A significant aspect of this analysis involves examining the role of translanguaging, a linguistic approach that embraces the fluid and integrated use of multiple languages (Wei, Reference Wei2011).

A pivotal construct in multilingual education, translanguaging encompasses dynamic language practices enabling multilingual individuals to draw from their entire linguistic repertoire, without strict adherence to traditionally defined language boundaries (Wei, Reference Wei2022). This concept fosters a conducive environment for language and content learning (Canagarajah, Reference Canagarajah2013), especially in bilingual or EMI contexts, by legitimizing all linguistic resources (García & Leiva, Reference García and Leiva2014). Recent studies within the Chinese context, such as those by Jia, Fu and Pun (Reference Jia, Fu and Pun2023), Liu (Reference Liu2020) and Tai & Wei (Reference Tai and Wei2021), have highlighted translanguaging's pedagogical effectiveness and its potential for cultivating linguistic inclusivity and diversity.

EMI in Sino-US Educational Institutions and the Role of Translanguaging Sino-US educational institutions, especially those located in the linguistically diverse Greater Bay Area (GBA) of China, are increasingly adopting EMI to cater to global academic standards and attract international students (Shen & Gao, Reference Shen and Gao2019; Leung & Li, Reference Leung (梁慧敏) and Li (李楚成)2020; Moody, Reference Moody2021). EMI's adoption, however, is not without its challenges. Among these is the question of how to balance the hegemonic status of English with the linguistic diversity of the region (Macaro et al., Reference Macaro, Curle, Pun, An and Dearden2018). This is where translanguaging comes in, offering an alternative language ideology to challenge traditional monolingual and native speaker biases (Holliday, Reference Holliday2006; Kumaravadivelu, Reference Kumaravadivelu and Edge2006; Fang, Reference Fang2018; García & Lin, Reference García and Lin2017; Rose & Galloway, Reference Rose and Galloway2019).

In addition to serving as a pedagogical tool, translanguaging has potential implications for language policies within these institutions (Wei, Reference Wei2022). However, while language policies in the GBA officially recognize linguistic diversity, their effective implementation often encounters hurdles. A prevalent issue is the disconnect between policy and practice, with the conservative attitudes of stakeholders and the widespread reverence for ‘native speaker’ English posing significant obstacles (Hu & Lei, Reference Hu and Lei2014; Gu & Lee, Reference Gu and Lee2019; Yuan & Yang, Reference Yuan and Yang2023).

In light of these complexities, a more in-depth exploration of the role of translanguaging within EMI contexts is called for, particularly in how it intersects with language policies, attitudes, and beliefs of different stakeholders in Sino-US educational institutions. By bridging this gap, a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between EMI, translanguaging, and multilingual education in the GBA context can be achieved.

Translanguaging practices in the Chinese context

The incorporation of translanguaging in Chinese educational environments has gained recognition as an effective pedagogical strategy (Zhou, Li & Gao, Reference Zhou, Li and Gao2021; Liu, Deng & Wimpenny, Reference Liu, Deng and Wimpenny2022). Fueled by empirical evidence, classroom practices reveal that the strategic deployment of translanguaging enriches students' academic engagement and comprehension (Chen, Zhang & Huang, Reference Chen, Zhang and Huang2022). Tai and Wei (Reference Tai and Wei2021) have argued that these practices are not random, but are instead influenced by a myriad of individual, social, and cultural factors. Consequently, in the EMI milieu of Sino-US institutions, such considerations need to be accommodated to ensure the successful integration of translingual strategies. A number of research has focused on the different aspects of such integration including the role of the first language (L1) for Chinese international students (An & Chiang, Reference An and Chiang2015), translanguaging on social media (Qi & Li, Reference Qi and Li2022), identity construction in EMI programs (Gu & Lee, Reference Gu and Lee2019), and the potential benefits of EMI instructions and program policies for Chinese students (Zhang, Reference Zhang2018; Zhao & Dixon, Reference Zhao and Dixon2017). Moreover, a resultant finding suggests that the implementation of translingual practices, which perceive language as a multi-dimensional and spatially determined construct, can situate EMI within multilingual institutional frameworks and inform EMI curricula as transcultural and trans-epistemic processes in Chinese policies. (Pennycook, Reference Pennycook2006; Bolton & Botha, Reference Bolton and Botha2015; Botha, Reference Botha2016; Aman, Reference Aman2017).

The prevalence of translingual practices further underscores the need for EMI curricula within Sino-US institutions to be cognizant of the rich linguistic landscape of students, and to tap into these resources for enhanced learning. This alignment between EMI and translanguaging recognizes the legitimacy and benefits of fluid language use in academic contexts. In the research of utilizing translanguaging in the Chinese contexts, Tsou (Reference Tsou, Tsou and Baker2021) positions translanguaging as a localized strategy for EMI in Asia, and Wei & Lin findings (Reference Wei and Lin2019) support adopting translanguaging practices for academic engagement and comprehension.

While previous research has acknowledged the value of translanguaging, less attention has been paid to how these practices are perceived within Sino-US educational institutions (Jia et al., Reference Jia, Fu and Pun2023; Yuan & Yang, Reference Yuan and Yang2023). Specifically, an investigation into stakeholders' perspectives on translanguaging is scarce, creating a gap that this study seeks to address By examining these perceptions, this study can contribute significantly to our understanding of the socio-linguistic dynamics within EMI contexts.

Snap Shot#1

I don't learn English at school, my English doesn't get improvements in this place.

In Jenny's recollection of her college life, she recalls that she has received little English language training because most of their subject learning is not primarily focused on improving their language skills. The English language instruction at this SUEI is typically confined to standalone language classes rather than being integrated into other subjects, resulting in a scarcity of opportunities for students to practice using English beyond their language classes. Furthermore, the curriculum at the institute is often geared towards preparing students for exams and assessments that are not necessarily related to their language proficiency. As a result, students may not feel motivated to prioritize language learning when it is not directly related to their academic aspirations. This limited focus on language learning projects negative consequences for students' proficiency in English.

Jenny also stresses that she tends to focus on maintaining their GPA rather than actual language learning due, in part, to the emphasis placed on grades and academic performance and peer pressure at her program. Students may feel pressured to prioritize their coursework and exams in order to sustain a high GPA, which may leave little time or energy for language learning (Field notes, October 18, 2021). This overemphasis on academic goals over language learning can be detrimental to students' language learning progress, as it may discourage them from seeking out additional language learning resources or opportunities (Field notes, October 18, 2021).

Snap shot #2

If you are person who wants to learn a language effectively, you are being a bit opportunistic when using translanguaging.

Translanguaging can empower students with limited English proficiency at SUEI to leverage their multilingual skills for enhanced English learning and communication, by leveraging their linguistic resources such as utilizing their first language as a tool for translation or as a means of conceptualizing challenging ideas in English. In this manner, students conceptualize translanguaging as a means of facilitating the transition from their present linguistic aptitudes to their objective of attaining fluency in a second language.

However, in Kate's evaluation of such practices, while translanguaging can be a useful technique for SUEI students, it is crucial to recognize that it should not be perceived as an alternative to immersive language learning which is regarded as the ideal way of learning. SUEI students might regard that translanguaging could aid learners in the short term by facilitating communication and comprehension, but it does not necessarily result in long-term language acquisition and proficiency. To truly elevate their English proficiency, Kate reckons that it is necessary to immerse themselves in an all-English environment where they are consistently exposed to and required to utilize the language. This can be a formidable challenge for learners with low English proficiency, but interview results has shown that immersion environment is believed to be the condition for language learning because learners are enveloped by the language and are compelled to use it on a regular basis, leading to a more thorough and comprehensive understanding of the language. Therefore, while translanguaging can be a helpful strategy for some students, it should not be relied upon as the sole method for language learning, and immersion should be considered as a complementary approach. Kate's fervent espousal of immersion as a means for English learning is predicated on the notion that such an experience not only facilitates language acquisition, but also grants learners the opportunity to immerse themselves in the culture and lifestyle of an English-dominant community, thereby fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation thereof.

Snap shot #3

I mean . . . It's kind of disrespectful.

Students with inadequate English proficiency may experience discourteous reactions from their counterparts with higher proficiency or native English-speaking faculty members, which can manifest in various forms, such as derision or contempt of their linguistic capabilities, mockery of their accents, or exclusion from group work or classroom discourse. These reactions can be disheartening and de-motivating for learners with insufficient proficiency, as they may perceive their language skills as not valued or esteemed (Field notes, December 2, 2021). It appears that such reactions are prevalent among students with low proficiency, and they can have adverse effects on students' motivation and self-assurance.

In the meantime, Kate also iterates that, despite the difficulties that students with limited English proficiency may encounter in their language acquisition, it is also vital for them to assume agency in their own progression. In further discussion with Kate and Jenny, both of them agreed that there are numerous methods by which students can augment their English proficiency, such as through supplementary language classes, procuring language learning resources, or practicing spoken and written English outside of class. Kate firmly believes that it is essential for students to adopt a proactive approach to language learning, as this can enable them to overcome obstacles and increase self-assurance in their linguistic skills (Interview notes, March 13, 2022). By making strides in language learning, students can also cultivate crucial communication skills that can be advantageous in their academic and professional pursuits.

One impediment to the implementation of translanguaging practices in this context is that, native English-speaking faculty at Sino-US educational institutions may harbor biases against translanguaging practices, which may be based on the belief that the use of multiple languages or language varieties in communication and learning is indicative of linguistic inadequacy or a lack of dedication to learning English. These prejudices can obstruct the implementation of translanguaging in the classroom and discourage students from leveraging their multilingual skills. It is imperative for instructors at SUEIs to be aware of potential biases and to cultivate a more inclusive and supportive learning environment through the provision of resources and support for translanguaging practices, as well as by challenging the notion that the use of multiple languages is indicative of linguistic deficiency.

Another limitation is the potential for translanguaging to be de-motivating for some English learners. While translanguaging can serve as a conduit between students' extant language competencies and their aspiration of attaining proficiency in English, it can also accentuate the discrepancy between their present skills and their desired level of proficiency. To address these limitations, SUEI administrators must furnish resources and support for translanguaging practices and to be cognizant of the needs and motivations of their English learners.

Snap shot #4

Using English outside classroom will look very pretentious, you know.

Jenny's concerns over the lack of opportunities of using English outside classrooms of SUEIs suggest that the lack of speech community for English potentially stems from a variety of factors such as the dominance of the students' first language in their social circles, the scarcity of English-language resources and materials in the community, or the lack of exposure to English-language media, pose a pragmatic obstacle for students’ language acquisition. Consequently, students may experience difficulty in maintaining and enhancing their English proficiency outside of the classroom, resulting in stagnation or even deterioration of language skills.

Another issue faced by students at Sino-US educational institutes is the potential for negative attitudes towards those who use English voluntarily outside of the classroom, which may be influenced by a range of factors including perceptions of linguistic superiority or inferiority, cultural norms and values (Field notes, March 3, 2022). These attitudes can create a hostile or unwelcoming environment for students who are trying to develop their English skills and can discourage them from using the language outside of the classroom.

The limited use of English outside of the classroom and negative attitudes towards voluntary English use may render translanguaging practices, the utilization of multiple languages or language varieties in communication and learning, less effective for SUEI students. Translanguaging practices may not offer adequate opportunities for students to advance their English proficiency due to insufficient exposure and usage of the language, resulting in a lack of progress or even deterioration in language skills. To address these challenges, instructors and other stakeholders must provide students with resources and support to utilize English outside of the classroom, thereby facilitating the development of their proficiency and sustaining their motivation and encouragement. Furthermore, it is imperative to work towards creating a more inclusive and supportive learning environment that values and celebrates linguistic diversity and encourages all students to cultivate their English skills.

Snap shot #5

I think my IELTS learning experience changed my attitudes.

In Jenny's self-analysis, one possible means through which students may be motivated to engage in targeted language learning is the existence of a clear and specific objective (i.e., the IELTS exam). The preponderance of instrumental learning motivation for students at SUEI when preparing for the IELTS or TOEFL exams may be due to the clear and specific goals that these exams represent as widely recognized benchmarks of language proficiency, serving as a means to demonstrate English skills for academic or professional purposes. Such types of English learning objectives serve as widely recognized markers of language proficiency and may be pursued for the purpose of demonstrating linguistic aptitudes for academic or professional purposes.

Jenny also argues that the emphasis on IELTS preparation may prove more pedagogically efficacious, as it hones specific linguistic aptitudes, including lexical acquisition, reading proficiency, auditory comprehension, and compositional proficiency. Preparing for IELTS exams, which emphasize specific language skills, may facilitate targeted and efficient language acquisition for students. The potential rewards of enhancing one's English in this manner, such as obtaining access to higher education or employment opportunities, may serve as an impetus for students to engage in language learning activities that specifically target skills such as vocabulary building, reading comprehension, listening comprehension, and writing.

Snap shot #6

The real world will be more harsh on your English.

Native-English speaking faculty members may hold the belief that English proficiency is a function of time and resource investment, leading to an authoritarian attitude towards students whose English proficiency is not yet sufficient. As a result, those faculty members may prioritize the conditions of EMI, including so-called the immersive learning environment, as a means of fostering English language progress among students. English L1 faculty members may display relatively disapproving attitudes toward students who employ translinguaging practices, perceiving such actions as a means of circumventing linguistic challenges rather than as a legitimate and effective approach to language development.

English L1 faculty members' attitudes and behaviors may be perceived by students as a form of ‘native-speakerism,’ or the belief in the inherent superiority of native-English speakers, which can lead to unfavorable repercussions for students, including feelings of inadequacy or resentment towards the English language. It is imperative for all stakeholders to recognize and challenge the underlying assumptions and biases that contribute to native-speakerism and to provide resources and support for students to develop their language skills in a positive and inclusive environment.