Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T07:16:52.731Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Suicide in Australia: Do We Really Have A Problem?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 October 2015

Pierre Baume
Pierre Baume*
Affiliation:
Australian Institute For Suicide Research and Prevention
*
Australian Institute for Suicide Research and Prevention, Griffith University, PO Box 24, Carina Qld 4152, Australia, Email: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

In 1995, 2367 Australians lost their lives through suicide, and up to 100 times this number may attempt each year: Suicide has now become a major public health problem in Australia, which has seen the suicide rates in young males quadruple over the last 35 years or so. An analysis of current research on suicide and suicidal behaviour exploring possible causes and crosscultural issues, is discussed. As well, an extended definition of suicide as an intentional death and its antecedents provides the foundation for a discourse on the views now held by our corntemporary society. The paper argues that suicide not only is one of the most extreme consequences of personal psychosocial distress but also is often also an indicator of previous life events and environmental factors that potentiates for personal vulnerabilities.

Keywords

AdolescenceAustraliaMethodsReviewRural YouthSuicide
Type
Research Article
Information
The Educational and Developmental Psychologist , Volume 13 , Issue 2 , November 1996 , pp. 3 - 39
Copyright
Copyright © Australian Psychological Society 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abbey, K.J., Madsen, C.H., & Polland, R. (1989). Short-term suicide awareness curriculum. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 19, 216–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adam, K.S. (1986). Early family influences on suicidal behaviour. In Mann, J.J. & Stanley, M. (Eds.), Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences: Vol. 487. Psychobiology of suicidal behaviour (pp. 63–76). New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Adam, K.S. (1990). Environmental, psychosocial, and psychoanalytic aspects of suicidal behaviour. In Blumenthal, S.J. & Kupfer, D.J. (Eds.), Suicide over the life cycle: Risk factors, assessment, and treatment of suicidal patients (pp. 39–96). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Ahlburg, D.A., & Schapiro, M.O. (1984). Socioeconomic ramifications of changing cohort size: An analysis of U.S. postware suicide rates by age and sex. Demography, 21, 97–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allebeck, P. (1989). Schizophrenia: A life-shortening disease. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 15, (1), 81–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., Rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Andrews, J.A., & Lewinsohn, P.M. (1992). Suicidal attempts among older adolescents: Prevalence and co-occurence with psychiatric disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 655–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Apter, A., Bleich, A., Plutchik, R., Mendelsohn, S., & Tyano, S. (1988). Suicidal behaviour, depression and conduct disorder in hospitalised adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(6), 696–699.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arato, M., Tekes, K., Tothfalusi, L., Frecska, E., Falus, A., Palkovits, M., & MacCrimmon, D.J. (1991). Serotonin dysregulation in suicide. In Cassano, G.B. & Akiskal, H.S. (Eds.), Serotonin-related psychiatric syndromes: Clinical and therapeutic links (pp. 41–46). London: Royal Society of Medicine Services.Google Scholar
Asarnow, J.R., Carlson, G.A., & Guthrie, D. (1987). Coping strategies, self-perception, hopelessness, and perceived family environments in depressed and suicidal children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 361–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asarnow, J.R., & Guthrie, D. (1989). Suicidal behaviour, depression and hopelessness in child psychiatric inpatients: A replication and extension. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 78, 129–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Asberg, M., Nordstrom, P., & Traskman-Bendz, L. (1986). In Mann, J.J. & Stanley, M. (Eds), Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences: Vol. 487. Psychobiology of suicidal behavior (pp. 243–255). New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1993). Cause of death-Australia, 1992 (Catalogue No. 3303.0). Australian Government Publishing Service.Google Scholar
Australian Bureau of Statistics (1995). Cause of death-Australia, 1994 (Catalogue No. 3303.0). Australian Government Publishing Service.Google Scholar
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (1994). Australia’s health 1994. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Services.Google Scholar
Barnes, R.A. (1986). The recurrent self-harm patient. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 16 (4), 399–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barraclough, B., Bunch, J., Nelson, B. & Sainsbury, P. (1974). A hundred cases of suicide: Clinical aspects. British Journal of Psychiatry, 125, 355–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barter, J.T., Swaback, D.O., & Todd, D. (1968). Adolescent suicide attempts: A follow up study of hospitalised patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 19, 523–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baume, P.J.M (1994, March). Developing a national suicide strategy for Australia. In Proceedings of Public Health Association of Australia Conference: Public health significance of suicide prevention strategies. Canberra: Public Health Asssociation.Google Scholar
Baume, P.J.M. (1995, April). Youth suicide: Australia’s shame. Hospital and Health Care, pp. 30–32.Google Scholar
Baume, P. (1996a). Suicide and young people. In McGrath, B., Groom, G., & Wild, A. (Eds.), General practitioners and adolescents: Dismantling the barriers (pp 119–131). Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Human Services and Health.Google Scholar
Baume, P. (1996b). Suicide in the bush: Myth or reality. In Cunningham Centre and Darling Downs Health Service Foundation 1996. Proceedings of the 3rd Biennial Australian Rural and Remote Health Scientific Conference: Evaluation and outcomes: Making a difference in the bush (pp. 2.40-2.62). Toowoomba, Queensland: The Educational Support Unit.Google Scholar
Baume, P.J.M., Cantor, C.H., & Williamson, P. (1996). Suicides in Queensland: A comprehensive study: 1990–1995. Manuscript in preparation.Google Scholar
Beck, A.T. (1986). Hoplelessness as a predictor of eventual suicide. In Mann, J.J. & Stanley, M. (Eds.), Psychobiology of suicidal behaviour (pp. 90–96). New York: Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar
Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., Beck, J.S., & Newman, C.F. (1993). Hopelessness, depression, suicidal ideation, and clinical diagnosis of depression. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 23(2), 139–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beiser, M. (1984). Flower of two soils: Emotional health and academic performance of native North American Indian children. Journal of Preventive Psychiatry, 2, 365–369.Google Scholar
Bell, A., & Weinberg, M. (1978). Homosexualities: A study of diversity among men and women. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Blumenthal, S., & Kupfer, D. (1988). Overview of early detection and treatment strategies for suicidal young people. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 17(1), 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyer, R., & Langelier-Biron, L. (1991). Actes de violence: Suicides, parasuicides et voies de fait. In Beaulne, G. (Ed.), Traumatismes au Quebec, Comprendre pour prevenir (pp. 231–264). Quebec: Les Publications du Quebec.Google Scholar
Brent, D.A. (1987). Correlates of medical lethality of suicide attempts in children and adolescents. Journal of the Americal Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 87–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brent, D.A., Kerr, M.M., & Goldstein, C. (1989). An outbreak of suicide and suicidal behaviour in a high school. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 918–924.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brent, D.A., & Kolko, D.J. (1990). Suicide and suicidal behaviour in children and adolescents. In Garfinkle, B.D., Carlson, G.A., & Weller, E.B. (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescent. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders.Google Scholar
Brent, D.A., Kolko, D.J., Allan, M.J., & Brown, R.V. (1990). Suicidality in affectively disordered adolescent inpatients. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 586–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brent, D.A., Perper, J.A., Goldstein, C.E., Kolko, D.J., Allan, M.J., Allman, C.J., & Zelenak, J.P. (1988). Risk factors for adolescent suicide: A comparison of adolescent suicide victims with suicidal inpatients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 581–588CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brent, D., Zelenak, J.P., Bukstein, O., & Brown, R.V. (1990). Reliability and validity of the structured interview for personality disorders in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(3), 349–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, L. (1992). Social aspects of the farm crisis. In Lawrence, G., Vanclay, F., & Furze, B. (Eds.), Agriculture, environment, and society: Contemporary issues for Australia (ppl57–172). Melbourne: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Calhoun, L.G., Selby, J.W., & Selby, L.E. (1982). The psychological aftermath of suicide: An analysis of current evidence. Clinical Psychology Review, 2, 409–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cantor, C. (1995). Suicide prevention in schools. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 5(1), 81–85.Google Scholar
Cantor, C.H., & Slater, P.J. (1995). The impact of firearm control legislation on suicide in Queensland: Preliminary findings. The Medical Journal of Australia, 162, 583–585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cantor, C.H., Turrell, G., & Baume, P.J.M. (1996). Access to means of suicide by young Australians. A background report prepared for the Commonwealth Department of Health and Family Services, Youth Suicide Prevention Advisory Group, Canberra, Australia.Google Scholar
Carlson, G.A., & Cantwell, D.P. (1982). Suicidal behaviour and depression in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 21, 361–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassileth, B.R., Lusk, E.J., Strouse, T.B., Miller, D.S., Brown, L.L., Cross, P.A., & Tenaglia, A.N. (1984). Psychosocial status in chronic illness: A comparative analysis of six diagnostic groups. New England Journal of Medicine, 311, 506–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Center for Disease Control (1988). CDC recommendations for a community plan for the prevention and containment of suicide clusters. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly, 37(S–6), 1–12.Google Scholar
Chabrol, H. (1984). Les comportements suicidaires de l’adolescent. Paris: Presse Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Clum, G., Patsiokas, A., & Luscomb, R. (1979). Empirically based comprehensive treatment program for parasuicide. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 937–945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen-Sandier, R., Berman, A.L., & King, R.A. (1982). Life stress and symptomatology: Determinants of suicidal behaviour in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 21, 178–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, D.A. (1988). Hopelessness, social desirability, depression and parasuicide in two college student samples. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 131–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D.A. (1989). Psychopathology of adolescent suicide: Hopelessness, coping beliefs, and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 248–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cormier, J.J., & Klerman, G.L. (1985). Unemployment and male-female labor force participation as determinants of changing suicide rates of males and females in Quebec. Social Psychiatry, 20, 109–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crombie, I.K. (1991). Suicide among men in the highlands of Scotland. British Medical Journal, 302, 761–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crumley, F.E. (1979). Adolescent suicide attempts. Journal of the American Medical Association, 241(22), 2404–2407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidson, L., & Gould, M. (1989). Contagion as a risk factor for youth suicide. In Davidson, L. & Linnoila, M. (Eds.), Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide. Vol. 2. Risk factors for youth suicide (pp. 88–109; DHHS Publication No. ADM 89-1622). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Davis, A., & Kosky, R. (1988). Attempted suicide in Adelaide and Perth: Changing rates for males and females 1971–1987. Medical Journal of Australia, 154, 666–670.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeVries, B., Dalla Lana, R., & Falck, V.T. (1994). Parental bereavement over the life course: A theoretical intersection and empirical review. Omega, 29(1) 47–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deykin, E.Y., Alpert, J.J., & McNamara, J.J. (1985). A pilot study of the effect of exposure to child abuse or neglect on adolescent suicidal behaviour. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1299–1303.Google ScholarPubMed
Diekstra, R., & Garnefski, M. (1995). On the nature, the gravity, and causality of suicide. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 25(1), 36–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dudley, M. (in press). Rural suicide in Australia. Proceedings of the 1996, June Suicide Prevention Australia Conference, Sydney.Google Scholar
Dudley, ML, Cantor, C, & de Moore, G. (1996). Jumping the gun: Firearms and the mental health of Australians. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 370–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudley, M., Waters, B., Kelk, N., & Howard, J. (1992). Youth suicide in NSW: Urban-rural trends 1964–1988. Medical Journal of Australia, 156, 83–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Durkheim, E. (1951). Suicide: A study in sociology. Glencoe: Free Press. (Original work published 1897)Google Scholar
Ennis, J., Barnes, R.A., Kennedy, S., & Trachtenberg, D. (1989). Depression in self-harm patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 41–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farberow, N.L., Litman, R.E., & Nelson, F.L. (1988). A survey of youth suicide in California. In Yufit, R. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 21st Annual Meeting of the American Association of Suicidology (pp. 298–300). Denver, CO: American Association of Suicidology.Google Scholar
Fawcett, J., Scheftner, W.A., Fogg, L., Clark, D.C., Young, M.A., Hedeker, D., & Gibbons, R. (1990). Time related predictors of suicide in major affective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(9), 1189–1194.Google ScholarPubMed
Fedden, H.R. (1980). Suicide: A social and historical study. NewYork: Arno Press.Google Scholar
Frances, A., & Blumenthal, S.J. (1989). Personality as a predictor of youthful suicide. In Davison, L. & Linnoila, M. (Eds.), Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide: Vol. 2. Risk factors for youth suicide (pp. 160–171; DHHS Publication No. ADM 89–1622). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Fremouw, W., Callahan, T., & Kashden, J. (1993). Adolescent suicidal risk: Psychological, problem solving and environmental factors. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 23(1), 46–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freud, S. (1964). Mourning and melancholia (Collected Papers, Vol. 4). London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Friedman, R.C., Arnoff, M.S., & Clarkin, J.F. (1983). History of suicidal behaviour in depressed borderline adolescent inpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 837–844.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, B.D., Froese, A., & Hood, J. (1982). Suicide attempts in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 1257–1261.Google ScholarPubMed
Garrison, C.Z., Addy, C.L., Jackson, K.L., McKeown, R.E., & Waller, J.L. (1991). A longitudinal study of suicidal ideation in young adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 597–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibson, P. (1989). Gay male and lesbian youth suicide. In Feinleib, M.R. (Ed.), Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide: Vol. 3. Prevention and interventions in youth suicide (pp.110–142; DHHS Publication No. ADM88-1623). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Goldney, R.D., & Burvill, P.W. (1980). Trends in suicidal behaviour and its management. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 14, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gould, M.S., & Shaffer, D. (1986). The impact of suicide in TV movies. Evidence of imitation. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 690–694.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gould, M.S., Wallenstein, S., & Kleinman, M. (1990). Time-space clustering of teenage suicide. American Journal of Epidemiology, 131, 71–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, A.H. (1978). Self-destructive behavior in battered children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 579–582.Google ScholarPubMed
Hafner, H., & Schmidke, A. (1989). Do televised fictional suicide models produce suicides? In Pfeffer, C.R. (Ed.), Suicide among youth: Perspectives on risk and prevention (pp. 117–142). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Hallenstein, A. (1994). The prevention of suicide (Draft Report No. 1). Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia.Google Scholar
Hassan, R. (1995). Suicide explained: The Australian experience. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press (Penguin).Google Scholar
Hassan, R., & Carr, J. (1989). Changing patterns of suicide in Australia. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 23, 226–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasselback, P., Lee, K.I., Mao, Y., Nichol, R., & Wigle, D.T. (1991). The relationship of suicide rates to sociodemographic factors in Canadian census divisions. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 36(9), 655–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawton, K., O’Grady, J., Osborne, M., & Cole, D. (1982). Adolescents who take overdoses: Their characteristics, problems, and contacts with helping agencies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 118–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hellon, C.P., & Solomon, M.I. (1980). Suicide and age in Alberta, Canada, 1951 to 1977: The changing profile. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 505–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henriksson, M.M., Arvo, H.M., Marttenson, M.J., Heikkinen, M.E., Isometsa, E.T., Kuoppasalmi, K.I., & Lonquist, J.K., (1993). Mental disorders and comorbidity in suicide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(6), 935–940.Google ScholarPubMed
Hoberman, H.M. (1988). The impact of sanctioned assisted suicide on adolescents. Issues in Law and Medicine, 4(2), 191–205.Google ScholarPubMed
Holden, R.J. (1995). Schizophrenia, suicide, and the serotonin story. Medical Hypotheses, 44, 379–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holden, R.R., Mendonca, J.D., & Serin, R.C. (1989). Suicide, hopelessness, and social desirability: A test of an interactive model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 500–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, E. (1993). Aboriginal health and history: Power and privilege in remote Australia. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, J. (1967). Adolescents suicide attempts: The culmination of a progressive social isolation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Jacobs, D. (1983). The treatment of capabilities of psychiatric emergency services. General Hospital Psychiatry, 5(3), 171–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jay, K., & Young, A. (1979). The gay report: Lesbians and gay men speak out about their sexual experiences and lifestyles. New York: Summit.Google Scholar
Jarvis, G.K., Ferrence, R.G., Whitehead, P.C., & Johnson, F.G. (1982). The ecology of self-injury: A multivariate approach. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 12(2), 90–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, B., & Brent, D. (1991, October). Personality and other predictors of suicidal behavior in adolescent inpatients. Paper presented at the 38th annual meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Kety, S. (1990). Genetic factors in suicide: Family, twin, and adoption studies. In Blumenthal, S.J., & Kupfer, D.J. (Eds.), Suicide over the life cycle: Risk factors, assessment, and treatment of suicidal patients (pp. 127–133). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick-Smith, K., Rich, A., Bonner, R., & Jans, F. (1989). Substance abuse and suicidal ideation among adolescents. In Lester, D. (Ed.), Suicide ‘89 (pp. 90–91). Denver, CO: American Association of Suicidology.Google Scholar
Kirmayer, L. (1994). Suicide among Canadian Aboriginal peoples. Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review, 31(1), 3–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kizer, K.W., Green, M., Perkins, C.I., Doebbert, G., & Hughes, M.J. (1988). AIDS and suicide in California. Journal of the American Medical Association, 260(13), 1881.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kosky, R. (1983). Childhood suicidal behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 24(3), 457–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kosky, R. (1987, August 17). Is suicide behaviour increasing among Australian youth? Medical Journal of Australia, 147(4), 164–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kosky, R. (1992). Adolescents in custody: Implications for suicide prevention. In McKillop, S. (Ed.), Preventing youth suicide: Conference proceedings 1992. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.Google Scholar
Kosky, R., Silburn, S., & Zubrick, S. (1986). Symptomatic depression and suicidal ideation: A comparative study with 628 children. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 174, 523–528.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuperman, S., Black, D.W., & Burnst, L. (1988). Excess suicide among formerly hospitalised child psychiatry patients. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49, 88–93.Google ScholarPubMed
Last, J.M. (1988). Comment. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 79, 44.Google Scholar
Lawrence, G. (1987). Capitalism and the countryside: The rural crisis in Australia. Sydney: Pluto.Google Scholar
Lesage, A.D., Boyer, R., Grunberg, F., Vanier, C., Morissette, R., Menard-Buteau, C., & Loywer, M. (1994). Suicide and mental disorders: A case control study of young men. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151(1), 1063–1068.Google ScholarPubMed
Lester, D. (1988). The biochemical basis of suicide. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Google Scholar
Lester, D. (1992). State initiatives in addressing youth suicide: Evidence for their effectiveness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 9(27), 75–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lester, D. (1992a). Why people kill themselves: A 1990s summary of research findings on suicidal behavior. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.Google Scholar
Lester, D. (1992b). Alcoholism and drug abuse. In Maris, R., Berman, A., Maltsberger, J., & Yufit, R. (Eds.) Assessment and prediction of suicide (pp. 321–336). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lewinsohn, P.M. (1994). Psychosocial risk factors for future adolescent suicide attempts. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 297–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lipschitz, A. (1995). Suicide prevention in young adults. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 25, 1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lipschitz, D.S., Kaplan, M.L., & Asnis, G.M. (1994, May). Characteristics of abuse in psychiatric outpatients. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Philadelphia, PA.Google Scholar
Lonnqvist, J. (1983). Outcome of eight-year follow-up of attempted suicides (Finland). Paper presented to the Twelfth Congress of the International Association of Suicide Prevention, Caracas, Venezuela.Google Scholar
Mancin, C., & Brown, G.M. (1992). Urinary catecholamies and Cortisol in parasuicide. Psychiatry Research, 43(1), 31–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mann, J.J., & Kapur, S. (1991). The emergence of suicidal ideation and behavior during antidepressant pharmacotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48(11), 1027–1033.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mao, Y., Hasselback, P., Davies, J.W., Nichol, R., & Wigle, D.T. (1990). Suicide in Canada: An epidemiological assessment. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 81(4), 324–328.Google Scholar
Maris, R.W. (1969). Social forces in urban suicide. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.Google Scholar
Martin, G., Kuller, N., & Hazell, P. (1992). The effect on adolescents of the completed suicide of another student. Youth Studies Australia, 11 (1), 21–23..Google Scholar
Marttunen, M., Avro, H., Henriksson, M., & Lonquist, J. (1994). Antisocial behaviour in adolescent suicide. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 89, 167–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marzuk, P.M., Tierney, H., Tardiff, K., Gross, E.M., Morgan, E.B., Hsu, M.A., & Mann, J. (1988). Increased risk of suicide in persons with AIDS. Journal of the American Medical Association, 259(9), 1333–1337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meehan, P.J., Lamb, J.A., Saltzman, L.E., & O’Carroll, P. (1992). Attempted suicide among young adults: Progress toward a meaningful estimate of prevalence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(1), 41–44.Google Scholar
Menninger, K. (1938). Man against himself. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Miles, C.P. (1977). Conditions predisposing to suicide: A review. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 164(4), 231–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mishara, B.L. (1993). Suicide: A public health concern? / Le suicide: Un probleme important pour la sante publique? [Editorial]. Canadian Journal of Public Health/Revue Canadienne de Sante Publique, 84(4), 222–225.Google Scholar
Morrell, S., Taylor, R., Quine, S., & Kerr, C. (1993). Suicide and unemployment in Australia 1901–1990. Journal of Social Science and Medicine, 36(6), 749–756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moscicki, E.K. (1994). Gender differences in completed and attempted suicides. Annals of Epidemiology, 4(2), 152–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moser, K.A., Fox, A.J., & Jones, D.R. (1984). Unemployment and mortality in the OPCS longitudinal study. Lancet, 2(15), 1324–1329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moser, K.A., Fox, A.J., Jones, D.R., & Goldblatt, P.O. (1986, February 15). Unemployment and mortality: Further evidence from the OPCS longitudinal study, 1971–81. Lancet, l (8477), 365–367.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moser, K.A., Goldblatt, P.O., Fox, A.J., & Jones, D.R. (1987). Unemployment and mortality: Comparison of the 1971 and 1981 longitudinal study census samples. British Medical Journal, 294, 86–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Motto, J., & Tanney, B. (1990). Long-term follow-up of 1570 attempted suicides. Paper presented at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the American Association of Suicidology, New Orleans, LA.Google Scholar
Nelson, F.C. (1987). Evaluation of a youth suicide prevention program. Adolescence, 88, 813–825.Google Scholar
Newman, S.C., & Dyck, R.J. (1988). On the age-period-cohort analysis of suicide rates. Psychological Medicine, 18, 677–681.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ormel, J. (1983). Neuroticism and well-being inventories: Measuring traits or states? Psychological Medicine, 13, 165–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostroff, R., Giller, E., Bonese, K., Ebersole, E., Harkness, L., & Mason, J. (1982). Neuroendocrine risk factors of suicidal behaviour. American Journal of Psychiatry, 739(10), 1323–1325.Google Scholar
Ostroff, R.B., Giller, E., Harkness, L., & Mason, J. (1985). The norepinephrine-to-epinephrine ratio in patients with a history of suicide attempts. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142(2), 224–227.Google ScholarPubMed
Otto, O. (1972). Suicidal acts by children and adolescents: A follow-up study. ACTA Psychiatrica Scandinavia, 233 (Suppl.), 7–123.Google ScholarPubMed
Paykel, E.S. (1989). Stress and life events. In Davidson, L. & Linnoila, M. (Eds.), Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide: Vol. 2. Risk factors for youth suicide (pp. 110–130; DHHS Publication No. ADM 89–1622). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Paykel, E.S., Prusoff, B., & Myers, J.K. (1975). Suicide attempts and recent life events: A controlled comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32(3), 327–333.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peck, M., & Berkovitz, I. (1989). Youth suicide: The role of school consultation. Adolescent Psychiatry - Developmental and Clinical Studies, 14, 511–521.Google Scholar
Peck, A.Y., Steer, R.A., Kovacs, M., & Garrison, B. (1985). Hopelessness and eventual suicide: A 10-year prospective study of patients hospitalised with suicidal ideation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 5(142) 559–563.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, C.R. (1989a). Life stress and family risk factors for youth fatal and nonfatal suicidal behavior. In Pfeffer, C.R. (Ed.), Suicide among youth: Perspectives on risk and prevention (pp. 143–164). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, C.R. (1989b). Family characteristics and support systems as risk factors for youth suicidal behavior. In Davidson, L. & Linnoila, M. (Eds.), Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide: Vol. 2. Risk factors for youth suicide (pp. 71–87; DHHS Publication No. ADM 89–1622). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, C.R., Klerman, G.L., Hurt, S.W., Kakuma, T., Peskin, J.R., & Siefker, C.A. (1993). Suicidal children grow up: Rates and psychosocial risk factors for suicide attempts during follow-up. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32 (1), 106–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfeffer, C.R., Lipkins, R., Plutchik, R., & Mizruchi, M. (1988). Normal children at risk for suicidal behavior. A two-year follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 202–209.Google ScholarPubMed
Pfeffer, C.R., Newcom, J., Kaplan, G., Mizruchi, M.S., & Pluchik, R. (1988). Suicidal behavior in adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 357–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillips, D. (1977). Motor vehicle fatalities increase just after publicised suicide stories. Science, 196, 1464–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, D. (1986). Natural experiments on the effects of mass media violence on fatal aggression. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 139–145.Google Scholar
Phillips, D.P., & Bollen, K.A. (1985). Same time last year: Selective data dredging for negative findings. American Sociological Review, 50, 364–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Phillips, D.P., & Carstensen, L.L. (1986). Clustering of teenage suicides after television news stories about suicide. New England Journal of Medicine, 315(11), 685–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillips, D.P., Lesyna, K., & Paight, D.J. (1992). Suicide and the media. In Maris, R.W., Berman, A.L., Maltsberger, J.T., & Yufit, R.I. (Eds.), Assessment and prediction of suicide (pp. 499–519). New York: The Guildford Press.Google Scholar
Phillips, D.P., & Paight, D.J. (1987). The impact of televised movies about suicide. New England Journal of Medicine, 317, 809–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piatt, S. (1984). Unemployment and suicidal behaviour: A review of the literature. Social Science and Medicine, 12(2), 93–115.Google Scholar
Platt, S., & Kreitman, N. (1990). Long term trends in parasuicide and unemployment in Edinburgh, 1968–87. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 25(1), 56–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plott, R.T., Benton, S.D., & Winslade, W.J. (1989). Suicide of AIDS patients in Texas: A preliminary report. Texas Medicine, 55(8), 40–43.Google Scholar
Prasad, A.J. (1985). Neuroendocrine differences between violent and non-violent parasuicides. Neuropsychobiology, 13(4), 157–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pretzel, P.W. (1968, July). Philosophy and ethical considerations of suicide prevention. Bulletin of Suicidology, 30–38.Google Scholar
Pritchard, C. (1992). Youth suicide and gender in Australia and New Zealand compared with countries of the Western World 1973–1987. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 26, 609–617.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Puig-Antich, J., Lukens, E., Davies, M., Goetz, D., Brennan-Quattrock, J., & Todak, G. (1985a). Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders: I. Interpersonal relationships during the depressive episodes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 500–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puig-Antich, J., Lukens, E., Davies, M., Goetz, D., Brennan-Quattrock, J., & Todak, G. (1985b). Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders: II. Interpersonal relationships after sustained recovery from affective episode. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 511–517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramsay, R.F., & Bagley, C. (1985). The prevalence of suicidal behaviours, attitudes, and associated social experiences in an urban population. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 75(3), 151–167.Google Scholar
Raphael, B. (1992). Traumatic stress and SIDS. Paper presented at the Second SIDS Family International Conference, Sydney, Australia.Google Scholar
Raphael, B. (1993). Youth suicide prevention. Paper presented at the Public Health Association Conference, Canberra.Google Scholar
Raphael, B. (1996). Clinical practice guidelines: Depression in young people (Draft). Canberra: National Health and Medical Research Centre.Google Scholar
Reed, J., Camus, J., & Last, J.M. (1985). Suicide in Canada: Birth-cohort analysis. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 76(1), 43–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Rich, A., & Bonner, R. (1987). Concurrent validity of a stress vulnerability model of suicidal ideation and behavior: A follow-up study. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 17, 265–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rich, C.L., Fowler, R.C., Fogarty, L.A., & Young, D. (1988). San Diego Suicide Study: III. Relationships between diagnoses and stressors. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 589–592.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rich, C.L., Young, D., & Fowler, R.C. (1986). San Diego Suicide Study: I. Young vs. old subjects. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43(6), 577–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robbins, D.R., & Alessi, N.E. (1985). Depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior in adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 588–592.Google ScholarPubMed
Robins, L.N. (1978). Study of childhood predictors of adult antisocial behavior. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, C.A., & Davis, B. (1986). Suicide and parasuicide in a northern Canadian native community. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 331–334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rotheram-Borus, M., Trautman, P., Dopkins, S., & Shrout, P. (1990). Cognitive styles and pleasant activities among female adolescent suicide attempters. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 554–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roy, A. (1982). Risk factors for suicide in psychiatric patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39(9), 1089–1095.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roy, A. (1986). Suicide in schizophrenia. In Roy, A. (Ed.), Suicide (pp. 97–112). Baltimore: Wiliams & Wilkins.Google ScholarPubMed
Roy, A. (1992). Genetics, biology and suicide in the family. In Maris, R.W., Berman, A.L., Maltsberger, J.T., & Yufit, R.I. (Eds.), Assessment and prediction of suicide (pp. 574–578). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Roy, A. & Linoila, M. (1986). Alcoholism and suicide. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 16(2), 244–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roy, A., & Linnoila, M. (1988). Suicidal behavior, impulsiveness, and serotonin. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 78(5), 529–535.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubenstein, J., Heeren, T., Housman, D., Rubin, C., & Stechler, G. (1989). Suicide behavior in normal adolescents: Risk and protective factors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 59–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Runeson, B. (1989). Mental disorder in youth suicide: DSM-lll-R Axes 1 and 11. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 79, 490–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saghir, M.T., & Robins, E. (1973). Male and female homosexuality: A comprehensive investigation. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Williams.Google Scholar
Sakinofsky, I. (1978). Life situations and lifestyles of persons who attempt suicide. Paper presented at the 11th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Suicidology, New Orleans, LA.Google Scholar
Sakinofsky, I. (1979). Socio-economic implications of early family disorganisation in the lives of suicide attempters. Paper read at the annual meeting of the Royal College of Physicians & Surgeons of Canada, Montreal.Google Scholar
Sakinofsky, L., & Roberts, R. (1987). The ecology of suicide in provinces of Canada, 1969–71 to 1979–81. In Cooper, B., (Ed.), The epidemiology of psychiatric disorders (pp. 27–42). Baltimore: John Hopkins.Google Scholar
Sakinofsky, I., Roberts, R.S., Brown, Y., Cumming, C., & James, P. (1990). Problem resolution and repetition of parasuicide: A prospective study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 395–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanderson, W.C., Friedman, T., Wetzler, S., Kaplan, M.L., & Asnis, G.M., (1992, November). Personality disorders in patients with major depression, panic disorder, and generalised anxiety disorder. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behavioral Therapy, Boston, MA.Google Scholar
Sansonnet-Hayden, H., Haley, G., & Marriage, K. (1987). Sexual abuse and psychopathology in hospitalised adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 753–757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saunders, J.M., & Valente, S.M. (1987). Suicide risk among gay men and lesbians: A review. Death Studies, 11(1), 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sayer, G., Stewart, G., & Chipps, J. (1996). Suicide attempts in NSW: Associated mortality and morbidity. New South Wales Public Health Bulletin, 7(6), 55–61.Google Scholar
Schmidke, A., & Hafner, H., (1988). The Werther effect after television films: New evidence for an old hypothesis. Psychological Medicine, 18, 665–676.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schotte, D., & Clum, G. (1982). Suicide ideation in a college population: A test of a model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 49–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schuckit, M.A., & Schuckit, J.J., (1989). Substance use and abuse: A risk factor in youth suicide. In Davidson, L. & Linnoila, M. (Eds.), Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide: Vol. 2. Risk factors for youth suicide (pp. 172–183; DHHS Publication No. ADM 89–1622). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D. (1988). The epidemiology of teen suicide: An examination of risk factors. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49(9, Suppl.), 36–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Shaffer, D., & Bacon, K. (1989). A critical review of preventive intervention efforts in suicide, with particular reference to youth suicide. In Feinleib, M.R. (Ed.), Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Youth Suicide: Vol. 3. Prevention and interventions in youth suicide (pp. 31–61). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D., Garland, A., & Bacon, K. (1989). Prevention issues in youth suicide. In Shaffer, D., Phillips, I., & Enzer, N.B. (Eds.), Prevention of mental disorders, alcohol and other drug use in children and adolescents (OSAP Prevention Monograph No. 2). Washinton DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D., Garland, A., Gould, M., Fisher, P., & Trautman, P. (1988). Preventing teenage suicide: A critical review. Journal of American Academy of Child Adolescence Psychiatry, 27(6), 675–687.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaffer, D., Vieland, V., Garland, A., Rojas, M., Underwood, M., & Busner, C. (1990). Adolescent suicide attempters: Response to suicide prevention programs. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264, 3151–3155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shafii, M., Carrugabm, S., Whittinghill, L., & Derrick, A. (1985). Psychological autopsy of completed suicide in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1061–1064.Google ScholarPubMed
Shneidman, E.S. (1965). Preventing suicide. American Journal of Nursing, 65(5), 111–116.Google ScholarPubMed
Shneidman, E. (1969). On the nature of suicide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Shneidman, E. (1993). Suicide as a psychache. Hillsdale, NJ: Aronson.Google ScholarPubMed
Smart, R.G., & Mann, R.E. (1990). Changes in suicide rates after reductions in alcohol consumption and problems in Ontario, 1975–1983. British Journal of Addiction, 85(4), 463–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, M.I., & Hellon, C.P. (1980). Suicide and age in Alberta, Canada, 1951 to 1977: A cohort analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 511–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spirito, A., Overholser, J., Ashworth, S., Morgan, J., & Benedict-Drew, C. (1988). Evaluation of a suicide awareness curriculum for high school students. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(6), 705–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stack, S. (1987). The sociological study of suicide: Methodological aspects. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 17(2), 133–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stack, S. (1990). A reanalysis of the impact of noncelebrity suicides. Social Psychiatry Epidemiology, 25(5), 269–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stack, S. (1993). The media and suicide: A nonadditive model, 1968–1980. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 23(1), 63–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stack, S., Gundlach, J., & Reeves, J. (1994). The heavy metal subculture and suicide. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 24(1), 15–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanley, E.J., & Barter, J.T. (1970). Adolescent suicidal behaviour. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 40, 87–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stengel, E. (1973). A matter of communication. In Schneidman, E. (Ed.), On the nature of suicide (pp. 74–80). San Francisco: Jossey Bass Inc.Google Scholar
Swanson, J.W., Linskey, A.O., Quintero-Salinas, R., Pumariega, A.J., & Holzer, C.E. (1992). A combinational school survey of depressive symptoms, drug use, and suicidal ideation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 669–678.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanney, B.L. (1992). Mental disorders, psychiatric patients, and suicide. In Maris, R., Berman, A., Maltsberger, J., & Yufit, R. (Eds.), Assessment and prediction of suicide (pp. 277–320). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tischler, C., McKenry, P., & Morgan, K. (1981). Adolescent suicide attempts : Some significant factors. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 11, 86–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Topol, P., & Reznikoff, M. (1982). Perceived peer and family relationships, hopelessness, and locus of control as factors in adolescent suicide attempts. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 12, 141–150.Google ScholarPubMed
Tousignant, M., Bastien, M.F., & Hamel, S. (1993). Suicidal attempts and ideations among adolescents and young adults: The role of father’s and mother’s care of parental separation. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 28(5), 256–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tousignant, M., & Hanigan, D. (1993). Suicidal behaviour and depression in youth. In Cappeliez, P. & Flynn, R.S. (Eds.), Depression and the social environment (pp. 93–120). Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trovato, F. (1988). Suicide in Canada: A further look at the effects of age, period, and cohort. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 79, 37–44.Google Scholar
UNICEF (1993). Progress of nations. New York: UNICEF.Google Scholar
Van der Kolk, B.A., Perry, C., & Herman, J.L. (1991). Childhood origins of self-destructive behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1665–1671.Google ScholarPubMed
Vega, W.A., Gil, A., Warheit, G., Apospori, E., & Zimmerman, R. (1993). The relationship of drug use to suicide ideation and attempts among African American, Hispanic and White Non-Hispanic male adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 23(2), 110–119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, A. (1986). Homicide: The social reality. Sydney, New South Wales: Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research.Google Scholar
Ward, J.A., & Fox, J. (1977). A suicide epidemic on an Indian reserve. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 22(8), 423–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welner, A., Welner, Z., & Fishman, R. (1979). Psychiatric inpatients: Eight to ten-year follow-up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 689–700.Google ScholarPubMed
Wenz, F.V. (1979). Self-injury behavior, economic status, and the family anomie syndrome among adolescents. Adolescence, 14(54), 387–398.Google ScholarPubMed
Wetzel, R.D., Margulies, T., Davis, R., & Karam, E. (1980). Hopelessness, depression, and suicide intent. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 41, 159–160.Google ScholarPubMed
Whitehead, P.C., Johnson, F.G., & Ferrence, R. (1973). Measuring the incidence of self-injury: Some methodological and design considerations. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 43(1), 142–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilkins, R., Adams, O., & Brancker, A. (1989). Changes in mortality by income in urban Canada from 1971 to 1986. Health Reports, 7(2), 137–174.Google Scholar
World Health Organisation (1989). World Health Statistics Annual. Geneva: Author.Google Scholar
World Health Organisation (l996). World Health Statistics Annual. Geneva: Author.Google Scholar
Yang, B., & Clum, G.A. (1994). Life stress, social support, and problem-solving skills predictive of depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and suicide ideation in an Asian student population: A test of a model. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behaviour, 24(2), 127–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yellowlees, P., & Kaushik, A. (1994). An examination of the association between life problems and psychiatric disorders in a rural patient population. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 28, 50–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar