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Ut musica poesis: Music and Poetry in France in the Late Sixteenth Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 December 2008

Howard Mayer Brown
Howard Mayer Brown
Affiliation:
University of Chicago
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Extract

By praising rulers, whose magnificence formed a crucial part of the world order, Pierre de Ronsard and his French colleagues in the second half of the sixteenth century often depicted the world not as it was but as it ought to be. This idea informs Margaret McGowan's book on ideal forms in the age of Ronsard, in which she explores the ways poets and painters extolled the virtues and the theatrical magnificence of perfect princes following the Horatian dictum ut pictura poesis: as is painting so is poetry. McGowan demonstrates the virtuosity of the painters and poets of the sixteenth century in shaping their hymns of praise from the subject matter and ideals of ancient Greece and Rome by following Horace's advice to regard paintings as mute poems and poems as speaking pictures. McGowan shows how artists and intellectuals pursued their goals by creating four kinds of ideal form: iconic forms, sacred images derived from classical literary sources offering princes some guarantee of immortality; triumphal forms that evoke the heroic imperial past; ideal forms of beauty to be found in contemplating the beloved; and dancing forms that mirror rituals of celebration. McGowan claims that such ideal forms were intended to enlighten the ruler himself as much as they celebrated his grandeur in the eyes of others.

Type
Research Article
Information
Early Music History , Volume 13 , October 1994 , pp. 1 - 63
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

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References

1 McGowan, M. M., Ideal Forms in the Age of Ronsard (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985)Google Scholar.

2 McGowan, , Ideal Forms, chap. 1: ‘The Perfect Prince’, pp. 9–50Google Scholar.

3 Lee, R. W., Ut pictura poesis: the Humanistic Theory of Painting (New York, 1967)Google Scholar; Gombrich, E. H., symbolic Images: Studies in the Art of the Renaissance (London, 1972)Google Scholar; Spencer, J. R., ‘Ut rhetorica pictura: a Study in Quattrocento Theory of Painting’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 20 (1957), pp. 26–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Praz, M., Mnemosyne: the Parallel Between Literature and the Visual Arts (New York, 1970)Google Scholar. For a study of the relationship between rhetoric and music in late sixteenth-century Italian music, see Palisca, C. V., ‘Ut oratoria musica: the Rhetorical Basis of Musical Mannerism’, The Meaning of Mannerism, ed. Robinson, F. W. and Nichols, S. G. (Hannover, NH, 1972), pp. 37–65Google Scholar.

4 Quoted from McGowan, , Ideal Forms, p. 51Google Scholar.

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6 McGowan, , Ideal Forms, p. 230Google Scholar.

7 For an approach to the expressive content of French music through the writings of theorists, see Walker, D. P., ‘La valeur expressive des intervalles mélodiques et harmoniques d'après les théoriciens et le problème de la quarte’, La chanson à la Renaissance, ed. Vaccaro, , pp. 93–105Google Scholar. On the practical nature of French treatises, see Seay, A., ‘Jean Yssandon and French Renaissance Theory’, Journal of Music Theory, 15 (1971), pp. 254–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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9 ‘the science which with sense and reason considers the difference between low and high sounds, or between soft and loud, providing the means of singing well harmoniously. … For this it is necessary to know clearly about species of harmony, and then to practise assiduously to intone and express the notes fluently in every mutation, with a carefully regulated measure, so that its proper subject is a melody that harmoniously encompasses words which are well-spoken, measured with some graceful rhythmic cadence, or balanced in an unequal equality of long or short pronunciation of syllables’; ibid., p. 79. The translation is taken from Dobbins, F., Music in Renaissance Lyons (Oxford, 1992), p. 97Google Scholar.

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11 Ibid., pp. 243–5.

12 See du Bellay, J., La deffence et illustration de la langue francoyse, ed. Chamard, H. (Paris, 1948; repr. 1970)Google Scholar. On Baïf and his vers et musique mesurés à l'antique, see note 41 below.

13 de Tyard, P., Le solitaire premier, ed. Baridon, S. F. (Lille and Geneva, 1950), p. 74Google Scholar.

14 Ronsard's preface is reproduced in, among other places, La fleur des musiciens de P. de Ronsard, ed. Expert, H. (Paris, 1923; repr. New York, 1965), pp. vii–xGoogle Scholar, and in Ronsard, , Oeuvres complètes, ed. Cohen, G. (Paris, 1938), ii, pp. 979–82Google Scholar. Facsimiles of the prefaces for both the 1560 Mellange and its reprint in 1572, and an English translation of the 1572 version, appear in Le Roy & Ballard's 1572 Mellange de Chansons, ed. Jacobs, C. (University Park, PA, and London, 1982), pp. 12–14 and 25–8Google Scholar. Ronsard's Abbregé de l'art poëtique françois is published in a modern edition in, among other places, Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. Cohen, , ii, pp. 997–1011Google Scholar, and in Ronsard, , Oeuvres complètes, ed. Laumonier, P., rev. and completed by I. Silver and R. Lebègue, 20 vols. (Paris, 1914–1975), xiv, pp. 3–35Google Scholar. For some of the notable studies of Ronsard and music, see Tiersot, J., ed., Ronsard et la musique de son temps (Leipzig and New York, 1903)Google Scholar; the special issue of La revue musicale (May 1924) devoted to ‘Ronsard et la musique’, with essays by van den Borren, C., Coeuroy, A., Laloy, L., de Nolhac, P., Pincherle, M., Prunières, H., Schaeffner, A. and Suarès, A.; Lebègue, R., ‘Ronsard et la musique’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle, ed. Jacquot, J. (Paris, 1954), pp. 105–19Google Scholar; Igly, F., Pierre de Ronsard et ses musiciens: sélection des meilleurs poèmes de Ronsard (Paris, 1955)Google Scholar; Silver, I., Ronsard and the Hellenic Renaissance in France, 3 vols. (Geneva, 1981)Google Scholar; the special issue of the Revue de Musicologie, 74 (1988)Google Scholar, devoted to ‘Les musiciens de Ronsard’ with essays by I. Bossuyt, J. Brooks, G. Dottin, G. Durosoir, J.-P. Ouvrard and J.-M. Vaccaro; and Brooks, J., ‘French Chanson Collections on the Texts of Pierre de Ronsard, 1570–1580’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Catholic University of America, 1990)Google Scholar.

15 Ronsard, , Abbregé, ed. Laumonier, , p. 9Google Scholar.

16 Ibid., pp. 8–9.

17 Ibid., pp. 27–8.

18 McGowan, , Ideal Forms, pp. 79–80Google Scholar. The Hymne de France is published in a modern edition in Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. Laumonier, , i, pp. 24–35Google Scholar.

19 Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. Laumonier, , i, p. 32Google Scholar.

20 McGowan, , Ideal Forms, pp. 40Google Scholar (Ode à Michel de l'Hospital), 48 (Hymne de l'esté and Hymne de l'hiver), 47 (Hymne de Henri II), 155 (Ode à Monseigneur le Dauphin), 156 (Hymne de l'éternité), 35 (Bergerie) and 35 (La lyre).

21 On Ronsard's many uses of music as metaphor, see Jeffery, B., ‘The Idea of Music in Ronsard's Poetry’, Ronsard the Poet, ed. Cave, T. (London, 1973), 209–39Google Scholar.

22 The 1552 Amours are published in a modern edition, among other places, in Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. Cohen, , i, pp. 3–110Google Scholar, and in Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. Laumonier, , iv (1925)Google Scholar. The musical supplement is published in facsimile in Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. Laumonier, , iv, pp. 189–250Google Scholar.

23 Seven of the nine musical examples are published in a modern edition in Expert, La fleur. For some doubts about whether the music for the Hymne triumphal sur le trespas de Marguerite was intended for all forty stanzas, see Egan-Buffet, M., Les chansons de Claude Goudimel: analyses modales et stylistiques (Ottawa, 1992), pp. 442–3Google Scholar.

24 The best examples of music published as apparently vocal polyphony but performed in a variety of ways are the commemorative editions of Italian intermedi, on which see, among other studies, Brown, H. M., Sixteenth-Century Instrumentation: the Music for the Florentine Intermedii, Musicological Studies and Documents 30 (Rome, 1973)Google Scholar. The early sixteenth-century repertory of frottolas constitutes another large group of compositions published as vocal polyphony but either intended primarily as solo songs, else most often performed in that way. There are also, of course, the innumerable sixteenth-century versions of vocal polyphony arranged for lute or keyboard, whose existence suggests that performers felt free to arrange in a variety of ways the music they found in printed and manuscript sources.

25 A modern edition of Nature ornant appears in Expert, La fleur, pp. 25–8; and also Janequin, C., Chansons polyphoniques, ed. Merritt, A. T. and Lesure, F., 6 vols. (Monaco, 1965–1971; repr. 1983), v, pp. 191–5Google Scholar.

26 A modern edition of Goudimel's setting of the ode appears in Expert, La fleur, pp. 14–20, and in Goudimel, C., Oeuvres complètes, xiii–xiv: Chansons, ed. Pidoux, P. and Egan, M. (New York and Basle, 1974–1983), xiii, pp. 80–5Google Scholar.

27 On fifteenth- and sixteenth-century musical formulas for declaiming poetry, see Pirrotta, N., ‘Early Opera and Aria’, New Looks at Italian Opera: Essays in Honor of Donald J. Grout, ed. Austin, W. W. (Ithaca, NY, 1968), pp. 39–107Google Scholar; republished Italian as ‘Inizio dell'opera e aria’, in Pirrotta, , Li due Orfei: da Poliziano a Monteverdi (Turin, 1969; 2nd rev. edn, 1975), pp. 276–333Google Scholar; translated into English by Eales, K. as Music and Theatre from Poliziano to Monteverdi (Cambridge, 1982)Google Scholar. On Pietrobono of Ferrara, see Lockwood, L., ‘Pietrobono and the Instrumental Tradition of Ferrara in the Fifteenth Century’, Rivista Italiana di Musicologia, 10 (1975), pp. 115–33Google Scholar, and Lockwood, , Music in Renaissance Ferrara, 1400–1505 (Oxford, 1984), esp. pp. 96–108Google Scholar. On Serafino, see Bauer-Formiconi, B., Die Strambotti des Serafino dall'Aquila: Studien und Texte zur italienischen Spiel- und Scherzdichtung des ausgehenden 15. Jahrhunderts (Munich, 1967)Google Scholar.

28 See Prizer, W. F., ‘The Frottola and the Unwritten Tradition’, Studi Musicali, 12 (1983), pp. 203–19Google Scholar.

29 See, for example, the arias in the lutebook of the Florentine courtier and lutenist Cosimo Bottegari (Modena, Biblioteca Estense, MS C 311), published in a modern edition as The Bottegari Lutebook, ed. MacClintock, C. (Wellesley, MA, 1965)Google Scholar. For other arias from the late sixteenth century, see also under ‘Aria’ in the index of first lines and titles in Brown, H. M., Instrumental Music Printed Before 1600 (Cambridge, MA, 1965)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 On Bembo's goals, see, among other studies, Mace, D., ‘Pietro Bembo and the Literary Origins of the Italian Madrigal’, Musical Quarterly, 55 (1969), pp. 65–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and Feldman, M., ‘Venice and the Madrigal in the Mid-Sixteenth Century’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1987)Google Scholar. Quite apart from the influence of Italy on the development of the French chanson in the second half of the sixteenth century, we also need to address the question of the diffusion of the French chanson in other countries, a topic not dealt with in the present essay. For some excellent beginnings in this direction, see I. Fenlon, ‘La diffusion de la chanson continentale dans les manuscrits anglais’; P. Walls, ‘La chanson dans les masques à la cour de Jacques Ier d'Angleterre: “The Music of the King's Peace” ’; D. Becker, ‘Deux aspects de la chanson polyphonique en Espagne: le chansonnier d'Uppsala et la “Recopilacion” de Juan Vasquez’; I. Bossuyt, ‘La chanson française en Allemagne et en Autriche dans la seconde moitié du XVIe siècle’; L. Virágh, ‘Les diverses formes de la musique vocale profane en Hongrie au XVIe siècle’; and Pozniak, P., ‘Aspects de la chanson en Pologne au XVIe siècle’, all in La chanson à la Renaissance, ed. , Vaccaro, pp. 172–208, 275–303 and 322–46Google Scholar.

31 Yates, F. A., The French Academies of the Sixteenth Century (London, 1947; repr. with foreword by J. B. Trapp, 1988), pp. 1–19.Google Scholar

32 On Saint-Gelais, see Dobbins, F., ‘Saint-Gelais, Mellin de’, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Sadie, S., 20 vols. (London, 1980), xvi, pp. 390–1Google Scholar; and Stone, D. jr ed., Saint-Gelais, M. de, Oeuvres poétiques françaises (Paris, 1993–)Google Scholar. On Scève, see Saulnier, V. L., ‘Maurice Scève et la musique’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle, ed. Jacquot, , pp. 89–103Google Scholar; and Coleman, D. G., Maurice Scève: Poet of Love: Tradition and Originality (Cambridge, 1975)Google Scholar.

33 Dobbins, ‘Saint-Gelais’.

34 Aneau, B., Quintil Horatien (Lyons, 1556)Google Scholar, is quoted in Dobbins, , Music in Renaissance Lyons, p. 76Google Scholar.

35 See Lebègue, R., ‘Ronsard et la musique’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle, ed. Jacquot, . p. 110Google Scholar.

36 The two collections are published in a modern edition in, among other places, Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. cohen, , i, pp. 915–1037Google Scholar.

37 La Grotte's composition is published in a modern edition in Expert, La fleur, pp. 62–4.

38 La Grotte's setting of Ronsard's hymn is published in a modern edition in Expert, La fleur, pp. 56–7. Models to follow in studying courtly (and other) festivities may be found in the three volumes on Les fêtes de la Renaissance, ed. Jacquot, J. (Paris, 1956–1975)Google Scholar, even though few of the essays deal with music.

39 A selection of Chardavoine's monophonic voix de villes are published in a modern edition in Expert, , La fleur, pp. 74–80Google Scholar; see also the facsimile of the 1576 edition (Geneva, 1980). On the repertory of monophonic melodies, see Levy, K. J., ‘Vaudeville, vers mesurés et airs de cour’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle, ed. Jacquot, , pp. 185–99Google Scholar; and also Heartz, D., ‘Voix de ville: between Humanist Ideals and Musical Realities’, Words and Music: the Scholar's View: a Medley of Problems and Solutions Compiled in Honor of A. Tillman Merritt, ed. Berman, L. (Cambridge, MA, 1972), pp. 115–35Google Scholar; and Heartz, , ‘The Chanson in the Humanist Era’, Current Thoughts in Musicology, ed. Grubbs, J. W. (Austin, TX, and London), 1976 pp. 193–230Google Scholar.

40 For some examples, see Arcadelt, J., Opera omnia, ed. Seay, A., 10 vols., Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 31 (1965–1970)Google Scholar, VIII, nos. 14, 15, 39, 40, 41, 42, 50, 53, 54, 56, 58, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 72, 87, 88, 96 and 98. The most substantial study of this repertory to date is Whang, J. O., ‘From Voix de ville to Air de cour: the Strophic Chanson, c. 1545–1575’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1981)Google Scholar.

41 On Baïf's vers et musique mesurés, see Walker, D. P., ‘The Aims of Baif's Académie de Poésie et de Musique’, Journal of Renaissance and Baroque Music, 1 (1946), pp. 91–100Google Scholar; Walker, , ‘The Influence of Musique mesurée à l'antique, particularly on the Airs de cour of the Early Seventeenth Century’, Musica Disciplina, 2 (1948), pp. 141–63Google Scholar; Walker, and Lesure, F., ‘Claude Le Jeune and Musique mesurée’, Musica Disciplina, 3 (1949), pp. 151–70Google Scholar; and Walker, , ‘Some Aspects and Problems of Musique mesurée à l'antique: the Rhythm and Notation of Musique mesurée’, Musica Disciplina, 4 (1950), pp. 163–86Google Scholar.

42 For some studies of Protestant music in sixteenth-century France, see Douen, E. O., Clément Marot et le psautier huguenot, 2 vols. (Paris, 1878–1879)Google Scholar; Cauchie, M., ‘Les psaumes de Janequin’, Mélanges de musicologie offerts à M. Lionel de La Laurencie (Paris, 1933), pp. 47–56Google Scholar; Rollin, J., ‘La musique religieuse protestante française’, Revue Musicale, nos. 222–3 (1954), pp. 138–56Google Scholar; and Pidoux, P., Le psautier huguenot du XVIe siècle, 2 vols. (Basle, 1961)Google Scholar.

43 Although Arcadelt has been studied as a madrigalist, scholars have ignored his chansons. Agnel, A., ‘Les chansons polyphoniques de Pierre Certon’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Paris, 1970)Google Scholar, the work most likely to shed light on the chansons of the 1550s, has not been available to me. On Goudimel, see Egan-Buffet, Les chansons de Claude Goudimel. On Janequin, the series of articles by Lesure, F. – ‘Clément Janequin: recherches sur sa vie et sur son oeuvre’, Musica Disciplina, 5 (1951), pp. 157–93Google Scholar; (with P. Roudié) ‘Clément Janequin, chantre de François Ier (1531)’, Revue de Musicologie, 43–4 (1959), pp. 193–8Google Scholar; and (with P. Roudié) ‘La jeunesse bordelaise de Clément Janequin’, Revue de Musicologie, 49 (1963), pp. 172–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar – remain our chief source of information on the composer and his music. Margolin, J.-C., ‘L'expression de la culture populaire dans les chansons de Clément Janequin’, La chanson à la Renaissance, ed. Vaccaro, , pp. 120–38Google Scholar, offers a useful view of one aspect of Janequin's oeuvre.

44 Certon, P., Complete Chansons Published by Le Roy and Ballard, ed. Bernstein, J. A., The Sixteenth-century chanson 6 (New York, 1990)Google Scholar.

45 Thibault, G. and Perceau, L., Bibliographie des poésies de P. de Ronsard mises en musique au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1941)Google Scholar.

46 The three chansons by Certon appear in Bernstein, pp. 143–6, 94–7 and 90–3.

47 See de Lassus, O., Sämtliche Werke, XIV: Kompositionen mit französischem Text, ii, ed. Leuchtmann, H. (Wiesbaden, 1981), p. xxvGoogle Scholar, for the information that the poem was published in Recueil de vray poesie française (Paris, 1543)Google Scholar. See also Ronsard, , Oeuvres, ed. Laumonier, , i, p. 137 and vii, p. 186Google Scholar, where the poem is published and its sources noted.

48 Modern edition in Roussel, F., Opera omnia, ed. Garden, G., 5 vols., Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 83 (1980–1982), v, pp. 6–7Google Scholar.

49 Modern edition in The Sixteenth-Century Chanson 7, ed. J. A. Bernstein (New York, 1988), pp. 99–101.

50 Modern edition in Lassus, , Kompositionen mit französischem Text, ii, ed. Leuchtmann, , pp. 88–91Google Scholar.

51 Appendixes 3–5 are derived from the information in Lesure, F. and Thibault, G., Bibliographie des éditions d'Adrian Le Roy et Robert Ballard (1551–1598) (Paris, 1955)Google Scholar. For a bibliography of all the chansons published in the sixteenth century, see Daschner, H., Die gedruckten mehrstimmigen Chansons von 1500–1600: literarische Quellen und Bibliographie (Bonn, 1962)Google Scholar. For a bibliography of the sources of poetic texts, see Lachèvre, F., Bibliographie des recueils collectifs de poésies du XVIe siècle (Paris, 1922)Google Scholar. The best overview of French secular music in the second half of the sixteenth century remains Lesure, F., Musicians and Poets of the French Renaissance (New York, 1955)Google Scholar.

52 Lesure, F. and Thibault, G., ‘Bibliographie des éditions musicales publiées par Nicolas du Chemin (1549–1576)’, Annales Musicologiques, 1 (1953), pp. 269–373Google Scholar.

53 On Fezandat, see Dobbins, F., ‘Fezandat, Michel’, The New Grove Dictionary, vi, p. 519Google Scholar.

54 See, for example, Renouard, P., Imprimeurs parisiens (Paris, 1898)Google Scholar, and Heartz, D., ‘Parisian Music Publishing under Henri II’, Musical Quarterly, 46 (1960), pp. 448–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

55 Pogue, S., Jacques Moderne: Lyons Music Printer of the Sixteenth Century (Geneva, 1969)Google Scholar.

56 Dobbins, , Music in Renaissance Lyons, pp. 173–4Google Scholar.

57 See Dobbins, , Music in Renaissance Lyons, pp. 185–8Google Scholar. A selection of chansons by Villiers appears in Miller, L. E., ed., Thirty-Six Chansons by French Provincial Composers (1529– 1550) (Madison, WI, 1981)Google Scholar, where the composer's first name is given as Pierre.

58 Layolle's music is published in D'Accone, F. A., ed., Music of the Florentine Renaissance, Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 32/iii–vi (1969–1973)Google Scholar.

59 Guillo, L., Les éditions musicales de la Renaissance Lyonnaise (Paris, 1991)Google Scholar; see also Dobbins, , Music in Renaissance Lyons, chapter 4: ‘Music Copied and Printed in Lyons’, pp. 134–72Google Scholar.

60 Certon's Meslanges is described and its contents listed in Lesure and Thibault, ‘Bibliographie des éditions musicales publiées par Nicolas du Chemin’, pp. 343–5. Perhaps the three volumes of music by Josquin and the four by Janequin also published by Du Chemin should be included in the list of large, commemorative editions, although they are not called ‘meslanges’. On that question, see His, I., ‘Les Mélanges musicaux au XVIe et au début du XVIIe siècle’, Nouvelle Revue du Seizième Siècle, 8 (1990), pp 95–110Google Scholar. In any case, both Du Chemin and Le Roy and Ballard seem to make distinctions between large, commemorative editions and volumes that contain a particular segment of one composer's works; and they also distinguish between books of newer or more current chansons, and collective editions (for example, the livres de recueil in Du Chemin's case) that mostly reprint the best or most successful chansons from their previous anthologies or from the past. The importance of these mélanges has become clear to me in discussions with Kate van Orden, at the time of writing a graduate student at the University of Chicago working on a dissertation on poetry and music in France in the second half of the sixteenth century. Her ideas inform a good many parts of the present essay, and I am grateful to her for sharing them with me.

61 The chansons of Lassus, including those in the 1570 meslange, are published in a modern edition in Lassus, , Sämtliche Werke, xii, xiv and xvi, ed. Leuchtmann, (1981–1982)Google Scholar. On his chansons, see Boetticher, W., Orlando di Lasso und seine Zeit, 1532–1594 (Kassel and Basle, 1958)Google Scholar; Bernstein, J., ‘Lassus in English Sources: Two Chansons Recovered’, Journal of the American Musicological Society, 27 (1974), pp. 315–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dobbins, F., ‘Lassus – Borrower or Lender: the Chansons’, Revue Belge de Musicologie, 39–40 (1985–1986), pp. 101–57Google Scholar; and J.-M. Vaccaro, ‘Roland de Lassus, les luthistes et la chanson’, ibid., pp. 158–74. Costeley's chansons are published in modern editions in Costeley, G., Musique, ed. Expert, H., Les Maîtres Musiciens de la Renaissance Française 3, 18 and 19 (Paris, 1896–1903; repr. New York, n.d.)Google Scholar; Costeley, , Selected Chansons, ed. Bernstein, J. A., The Sixteenth-Century Chanson 8 (New York, 1989)Google Scholar, and in Godt, I., ‘Guillaume Costeley: Life and Works’ (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1969)Google Scholar. The chansons of Le Jeune are published in a modern edition in Le Jeune, , Mélanges, ed. Expert, H., Les Maîtres Musiciens de la Renaissance Française, 16 (Paris, 1903; repr. New York, 1965)Google Scholar; Le Jeune, Le printemps, ed. Expert, ibid. 12–14 (Paris, 1900–1901; repr. New York, 1963); Le Jeune, , Complete Unpublished Chansons, ed. Bernstein, J. A., The Sixteenth-Century Chanson 16–17 (New York, 1989–1990)Google Scholar; and Le Jeune, , Airs of 1608, ed. Walker, D. P. and Lesure, F., 4 vols., AIM Miscellanea 1–4 (Rome, 1951–1919)Google Scholar. See also His, I., ‘Les Mélanges de Claude Le Jeune (Anvers: Plantin, 1585): transcription et étude critique’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Tours, 1990)Google Scholar.

62 For a modern edition of the collection, see Jacobs, ed., Le Roy & Ballard's 1572 Mellange.

63 The chansons of Goudimel are published in a modern edition in Goudimel, , Oeuvres complètes, ed. Pidoux, and Egan, , xiii–xivGoogle Scholar. On his chansons, see M. Egan[-Buffet], ‘Problèmes d'interprétation rythmique dans les chansons de Claude Goudimel’, La chanson à la Renaissance, ed. Vaccaro, , pp. 139–56Google Scholar; and Egan-Buffet, Les chansons de Claude Goudimel.

64 For a brief sketch of musical life in Toulouse, with helpful indications of subjects for further study, see Dobbins, F., ‘Toulouse’, The New Grove Dictionary, xix, pp. 92–3Google Scholar.

65 On Bertrand, see Vaccaro, J.-M., ‘Musique et poésie à l'époque de la Pléïade: Anthoine de Bertrand 1540–1381’ (master's thesis, University of Poitiers, 1965)Google Scholar; Vaccaro, , ‘Le livre d'airs spirituels d'Anthoine de Bertrand’, Revue de Musicologie, 56 (1970), pp. 35–53; (1970), pp. 35–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vaccaro, , ‘Les préfaces d'Anthoine de Bertrand’, Revue de Musicologie, 74 (1988), pp. 221–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vaccaro, , ‘Anthoine de Bertrand: Las! pour vous trop aymer’, Models of Musical Analysis: Music before 1600, ed. Everist, M. (Oxford, 1992), pp. 175–207Google Scholar; Thibault, G., ‘Anthoine de Bertrand, musicien de Ronsard, et ses amis toulousains’, Mélanges offerts à M. Abel Lefranc (Paris, 1936), pp. 282–300Google Scholar; Brooks, J., ‘“Ses Amours et les miennes tout ensemble”: la Structure cyclique du Premier livre d'Anthoine de Bertrand’, Revue de Musicologie, 74 (1988), pp. 201–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brooks, ‘French Chanson Collections’, esp. pp. 204–72.

66 Susato's publications are listed and described in Meissner, U., Der Antwerpener Notendrucker Tylman Susato, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1967)Google Scholar. See also Forney, K., ‘Tielman Susato, Sixteenth-Century Music Printer: an Archival and Typographical Investigation’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Kentucky, 1978)Google Scholar. The publications of Phalèse's firm before 1578 are listed and described in Vanhulst, H., Catalogue des éditions de musique publiées à Lourain par Pierre Phalèse et ses fils, 1545–1578 (Brussels, 1990)Google Scholar. Timothy McTaggart is currently completing a dissertation for the University of Chicago on the chansons published by Waelrant and Laet.

67 For an exemplary genre study, see Adams, C. S., ‘Some Aspects of the Chanson for Three Voices during the Sixteenth Century’, Acta Musicologica, 49 (1977). pp. 91–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

68 Le Jeune, C., Dodécacorde, comprising Twelve Psalms of David Set to Music according to the Twelve Modes, 3 vols., ed. Heider, A. H., Recent Researches in the Music of the Renaissance 74–6 (Madison, WI, 1988)Google Scholar.

69 See Powers, H., ‘Tonal Types and Modal Categories in Renaissance Polyphony’, Journal of the American Musicological Society, 34 (1981), pp. 428–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For some attempts to address these questions, see Hertin, U., Die Tonarten in der französischen Chanson des 16. Jahrhunders: Janequin, Sermisy, Costeley, Bertrand (Munich, 1974)Google Scholar; Brown, H. M., ‘Theory and Practice in the Sixteenth Century: Preliminary Notes on Attaingnant's Modally Ordered Chansonniers’, Essays in Musicology: a Tribute to Alvin Johnson, ed. Lockwood, L. and Rosener, E. (Philadelphia, 1990), pp. 75–100Google Scholar; Adams, C. S., ‘The Early Chanson Anthologies Published by Pierre Attaingnant (1528–1530)’, Journal of Musicology, 5 (1987), pp. 527–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

70 For examples, see note 40 above.

71 See note 39 above.

72 The best introduction to French instrumental dances is Vaccaro, J.-M., La musique de luth en France au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1981)Google Scholar. For a bibliography including French instrumental dances of the sixteenth century see Brown, Instrumental Music.

73 Recent studies of the ballet de cour include McGowan, M. M., L'art du ballet de cour en France, 1581–1643 (Paris, 1963)Google Scholar; Christout, M.-F., Le ballet de cour de Louis XIV, 1643–1672 (Paris, 1967)Google Scholar; and Bonniffet, P., Un ballet démasqué: l'union de la musique au verbe dans ‘Le printans’ de Jean-Antoine de Baïf et Claude Le Jeune (Paris and Geneva, 1988)Google Scholar.

74 Thibault and Perceau, Bibliographie des poésies de P. de Ronsard.

75 For studies of Baïf and his circle, see note 41 above.

76 For a beginning in this direction, see F. Dobbins, ‘Les madrigalistes français et la Pléiade’ and J.-P. Ouvrard, ‘La chanson française du XVIe siècle: lecture du texte poétique’, La chanson à la Renaissance, ed. Vaccaro, , pp. 157–71 and 106–19Google Scholar.

77 Modern editions of the two chansons appear in Costeley, , Selected Chansons, ed. Bernstein, , pp. 65–7 and 68–9Google Scholar.

78 All three appear in Lassus, Kompositionen mit französischem Text, ii. On Susanne un jour, see Levy, K. J., ‘“Susanne un jour”: the History of a 16th Century Chanson’, Annales Musicologiques, 1 (1953), pp. 375–408Google Scholar.

79 La fleur de poésie françoyse: recueil joyeulx contenant plusieurs huictains, dixains, quatrains, chansons & aultres dictez de diverses matières, mis en nottes musicalles par plusieurs auiheurs (Paris: Alain Lotrian, 1543)Google Scholar. The volume was republished in a modern edition in Raretés bibliographiques … pour une société de bibliophiles (Paris, 1864)Google Scholar. The title suggests that the collection was made by selecting texts that had already been set to music (mostly from Attaingnant's anthologies of polyphonic song). I am grateful to Kate van Orden for pointing out the importance of this particular collection.

80 See, for example, Kirsch, W., ‘Josquin's Motets in the German Tradition’, Josquin des Prez, ed. Lowinsky, E. E. in collaboration with B. J. Blackburn (London, 1976), pp. 261–78Google Scholar. Hirsch does not claim, however, that the revival of Josquin's music is unique.

81 Appendix 6 is derived from Lesure, and Thibault, , Bibliographie des éditions d'Adrian Le Roy et Robert Ballard, pp. 91–4 and 156–9Google Scholar.

82 On the question of Italian influence and Petrarchism, see, among other studies, Weber, H., La création poétique au XVIe siècle en France (Paris, 1955), esp. pp. 12–22 and 231–6Google Scholar.

83 On Costeley's chromatic chanson, see Levy, K. J., ‘Costeley's Chromatic Chanson’, Annales Musicologiques, 3 (1955), pp. 213–63Google Scholar; and Dahlhaus, C., ‘Zu Costeleys chromatischer Chanson’, Die Musikforschung, 16 (1963), pp. 253–65Google Scholar.

84 Le Jeune's modally ordered motets are published in a modern edition in Le Jeune, Dodécacorde, ed. Heider. On modal ordering in Bertrand's chansons, see Brooks, ‘ “Ses amours et les miennes tout ensemble” ’.

85 On the literary tradition of imitating Greek odes, see Delboulle, A., Anacréon et les poèmes anacréontiques: texte grec avec les traductions et imitations des poètes du XVIe siècle (Geneva, 1970)Google Scholar; and Rosenmeyer, P., The Poetics of Imitation: Anacreon and the Anacreontic Tradition (New York, 1992)Google Scholar.

86 A fact not noted in Coleman, Maurice Scève.

87 Appendix 7 is derived from Lesure and Thibault, Bibliographie des éditions d'Adrian Le Roy et Robert Ballard.

88 Janequin's psalms, for which only a single bass partbook survives, are listed and described in Lesure, and Thibault, , Bibliographic des éditions d'Adrian Le Roy et Robert Ballard, pp. 81–3Google Scholar.

89 See Yates, , The French Academies, pp. 1–35Google Scholar.

90 For very brief sketches of music in the reigns of Henri II, Charles IX, Henri III and Henri IV, see Cazeaux, I., French Music in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Oxford, 1975)Google Scholar, chapter 1: ‘Royal Courts and Music’, pp. 9–32. The information in the following paragraphs devoted to each reign has been assembled from standard reference books. Except for Cazeaux, few music scholars have tried to characterise the state of music under each of the French kings in the second half of the sixteenth century.

91 Brantôme is quoted in Verchaly, A., ‘Desportes et la musique’, Annales Musicologiques, 2 (1954), p. 276Google Scholar.

92 The music of Du Caurroy is in the process of being published in modern edition in du Caurroy, E., Oeuvres complètes, ed. Pidoux, B., 1 vol. to date (Brooklyn, 1975–)Google Scholar. The chansons of Millot originally published by Le Roy and Ballard are available in a modern edition in Chansons issued by Le Roi and Ballard: Nicolas Millot, Marchandy, Nicolas de Marie, Thomas Champion (‘Mithou’), Pierre Moulu, Jean Mouton, Pagnier, Hilaire Penet, Claude Petit Jehan, ed. Bernstein, J. A., The Sixteenth-Century Chanson 19 (New York, 1991)Google Scholar. For the two surviving pieces by Vaumesnil, , see Oeuvres de Vaumesnil, Edinthon, Perrichon, Rael, Montbuysson, La Grotte, Saman, La Bane, ed. Souris, A., Rollin, M. and Vaccaro, J.-M. (Paris, 1974)Google Scholar.

93 For a beginning in this direction, see Pau, G., ‘De l'usage de la chanson spirituelle par les Jésuites au temps de la Contre-Reforme’, La chanson à la Renaissance, ed. Vaccaro, , pp. 15–34Google Scholar.

94 See Verchaly, ‘Desportes’, pp. 271–345.

95 On the Académie du Palais, see Yates, The French Academies.

96 Facsimiles of the 1582 commemorative edition have been published as de Beauioyeulx, B., Balet comique de la royne 1582, ed. Caula, G. A. (Turin, 1962)Google Scholar, and, more recently, with an introduction by McGowan, M., as Le balet comique by Balthazar de Beaujoyeulx 1581, Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 6 (Binghamton, NY, 1982)Google Scholar. On the balet comique, see also Yates, F. A., ‘Poésie et musique dans les “Magnificences” au mariage du due de Joyeuse’, Musique et poésie au XVIe siècle, ed. Jacquot, , pp. 241–64Google Scholar.

97 The examples in this paragraph have all been taken from the articles on each composer in The New Grove Dictionary.

98 For some examples relating to French institutions before 1550, see Bonime, S., ‘Anne de Bretagne (1477–1514) and Music: an Archival Study’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Bryn Mawr College, 1975)Google Scholar; Freedman, R., ‘Music, Musicians, and the House of Lorraine during the First Half of the Sixteenth Century’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1987)Google Scholar; Wright, C., Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris, 500–1550 (Cambridge, 1989)Google Scholar; and Robertson, A. W., The Service-Books of the Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis (Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar. Comparable studies of the music associated with various French institutions in the second half of the sixteenth century have yet to be made.

99 See Brooks, J., ‘La comtesse de Retz et l'air de cour des années 1570’, Le concert des voix et des instruments à la Renaissance, ed. Vaccaro, J.-M. (Paris, 1994)Google Scholar.

100 Bonnin, T. and Chassant, A., Puy de musique érigé à Evreux, en l'honneur de madame sainte Cecile (Evreux, 1837)Google Scholar.

101 Jeffery, B., ed., Chanson Verse of the Early Renaissance, 2 vols. (London, 1971–1976)Google Scholar, reprints in modern edition the contents of all such songbooks published up to the 1540s. A comparable edition of later songbooks, or at least a comprehensive study of such anthologies, would be an invaluable aid to study.