Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T17:22:14.949Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE IMPEDES INTERSECTIONAL THINKING1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 January 2014

Phillip Atiba Goff  and
Kimberly Barsamian Kahn
Phillip Atiba Goff*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles
Kimberly Barsamian Kahn
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Portland State University
*
Phillip Atiba Goff, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, 1285 Franz Hall, Box 951563, Los Angeles, CA 90095–1563. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Psychological science that examines racial and gender bias, primarily located within social psychology, has tended to discount the ways in which race and gender mutually construct each other. Lay conceptions of racial and gender discrimination tend to see racism as primarily afflicting men and sexism primarily afflicting White women, when in fact race and gender are interrelated and work together intersectionally. Ignoring women's experiences of racial discrimination produces androcentric conceptions of racisms—in other words, many definitions of racial discrimination are to some degree sexist (Goff et al., 2008). Similarly, privileging the experiences of White women produces narrow definitions of gender discrimination—in other words, many definitions of gender discrimination are to some degree racist, such that they serve to reinforce the current societal hierarchies. Psychological science sometimes appears to reflect such conceptions. The result is that the social science principally responsible for explaining individual-level biases has developed a body of research that can undervalue the experiences of non-White women (Goff et al., 2008). This article examines features of social psychological science and its research processes to answer a question suggested by this framing: is the current psychological understanding of racism, to some extent, sexist and the understanding of sexism, to some extent, racist? We argue here that the instruments that much of social psychological science uses to measure racial and gender discrimination may play a role in producing inaccurate understandings of racial and gender discrimination. We also present original experimental data to suggest that lay conceptions parallel social psychology's biases: with lay persons also assuming that racism is about Black men and sexism is about White women.2 Finally, we provide some suggestions to increase the inclusivity of psychology's study of discrimination as well as reasons for optimism in this area.

Keywords

IntersectionalitySocial PsychologyMethodologyRacismSexism
Type
Intersectionality
Information
Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race , Volume 10 , Issue 2 , Fall 2013 , pp. 365 - 384
Copyright
Copyright © W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

1

The authors would like to thank the Russell Sage Foundation, the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, the Atlantic Philanthropies, and the William T. Grant Foundation for their generous support of this research and all the members of the Psychology of Social Justice Lab for their feedback on previous versions of this article.

References

REFERENCES

Allport, Gordon W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Beilock, Sian. L., Rydell, Robert J., and McConnell, Allen R. (2007). Stereotype Threat and Working Memory: Mechanisms, Alleviation, and Spillover. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(2): 256–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bem, Sandra L. (1974). The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2): 155–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bem, Sandra L. (1981). Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing. Psychological Review, 88(4): 354–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biernat, Monica and Vescio, Theresa K. (2002). She Swings, She Hits, She's Great, She's Benched: Implications of Gender-Based Shifting Standards for Judgment and Behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(1): 66–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, Irene V., Judd, Charles M., and Chapleau, Kristine M. (2004). The Influence of Afrocentric Facial Features in Criminal Sentencing. Psychological Science, 15(10): 674–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, Irene V., Judd, Charles M., Sadler, Melody S., and Jenkins, Christopher (2002). The Role of Afrocentric Features in Person Perception: Judging by Features and Categories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(1): 5–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosson, Jennifer K., Prewitt-Freilino, Jennifer L., and Taylor, Jenel N. (2005). Role Rigidity: A Problem of Identity Misclassification? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4): 552–565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosson, Jennifer K., Taylor, Jenel N., and Prewitt-Freilino, Jennifer L. (2006). Gender Role Violations and Identity Misclassification: The Roles of Audience and Actor Variables. Sex Roles, 55(1-2): 13–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowleg, Lisa (2008). When Black + Lesbian + Woman ≠ Black Lesbian Woman: The Methodological Challenges of Qualitative and Quantitative Intersectionality Research. Sex Roles, 59(5-6): 312–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brewer, Marilynn B. (1988). A Dual Process Model of Impression Formation. In Wyer, Robert S. and Srull, Thomas K. (Eds.), A Dual Process Model of Impression Formation: Advances in Social Cognition, Vol. 1, pp. 1–36. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cashin, Sheryll (2005). The Failures of Integration: How Race and Class are Undermining the American Dream. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Cole, Elizabeth R. (2009). Intersectionality and Research in Psychology. American Psychologist, 64(3): 170–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Correll, Joshua, Park, Bernadette, Judd, Charles M., Wittenbrink, Bernd, Sadler, Melody S., and Keesee, Tracie (2007). Across the Thin Blue Line: Police Officers and Racial Bias in the Decision to Shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6): 1006–1023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosmides, Leda, Tooby, John, and Kurzban, Robert (2003). Perceptions of Race. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(4): 173–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crenshaw, Kimberlé Williams (1989). Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 14: 139–167.Google Scholar
Cross, William E. Jr. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American Identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Cross, William E. Jr. and Vandiver, Beverly J. (2001). Nigrescence Theory and Measurement: Introducing the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). In Ponterotto, Joseph G., Casas, J. Manuel, Suzuki, Lisa A., and Alexander, Charlene M. (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, pp. 371–393. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Cummings, Jason L. and Jackson, Pamela Braboy (2008). Race, Gender, and SES Disparities in Self-Assessed Health, 1974–2004. Research on Aging, 30(2): 137–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Paul G., Spencer, Steven J., Quinn, Diane M., and Gerhardstein, Rebecca (2002). All Consuming Images: How Television Commercials that Elicit Stereotype Threat Can Restrain Women Academically and Professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12): 1615–1628.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, Paul G., Spencer, Steven J., and Steele, Claude M. (2005). Clearing the Air: Identity Safety Moderates the Effects of Stereotype Threat on Women's Leadership Aspirations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(2): 276–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devine, Patricia G. (1989). Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1): 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diversity Statistics. Diversity Central: Resources for Cultural Diversity at Work. ⟨http://www.diversitycentral.com/business/diversity_statistics.html⟩ (accessed August 19, 2013).Google Scholar
Dodd, Elizabeth H., Giuliano, Traci A., Boutell, Jori M., and Moran, Brooke E. (2001). Respected or Rejected: Perceptions of Women Who Confront Sexist Remarks. Sex Roles, 45(7-8): 567–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dottolo, Andrea L. and Stewart, Abigail J. (2008). ‘Don't Ever Forget Now, You're a Black Man in America’: Intersections of Race, Class and Gender in Encounters with the Police. Sex Roles, 59(5-6): 350–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, John F. (2001). On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4): 829–849.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, John F. and Esses, Victoria M. (2007). Psychological Research and Public Policy: Bridging the Gap. Social Issues and Policy Review, 1(1): 5–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, John F., Kawakami, Kerry, and Gaertner, Samuel L. (2002). Implicit and Explicit Prejudice and Interracial Interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1): 62–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eagly, Alice H., Wood, Wendy, and Johannesen-Schmidt, Mary C. (2004). Social Role Theory of Sex Differences and Similarities: Implications for the Partner Preferences of Women and Men. In Eagly, Alice H., Biell, Anne E., and Johannesen-Schmidt, Mary C. (Eds.), The Psychology of Gender, pp. 269–295. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Eastwick, Paul W., Eagly, Alice H., Glick, Peter, Johannesen-Schmidt, Mary C., Fiske, Susan T., Blum, Ashley M. B., Eckes, Thomas, Freiburger, Patricia, Huang, Li-li, and Fernandez, Maria Lameiras (2006). Is Traditional Gender Ideology Associated with Sex-Typed Mate Preferences? A Test in Nine Nations. Sex Roles, 54(9-10): 603–614.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Davies, Paul G., Purdie-Vaughns, Valerie J., and Johnson, Sheri Lynn (2006). Looking Deathworthy: Perceived Stereotypicality of Black Defendants Predicts Capital-Sentencing Outcomes. Psychological Science, 17(5): 383–388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Goff, Phillip Atiba, Purdie, Valerie J., and Davies, Paul G. (2004). Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(6): 876–893.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiske, Susan T., Lin, Monica H., and Neuberg, Steven L. (1999). The Continuum Model: Ten Years Later. In Chaiken, Shelly and Trope, Yaacov (Eds.), Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology, pp. 231–254. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fiske, Susan T. and Neuberg, Steven L. (1990). A Continuum of Impression Formation, from Category-Based to Individuating Processes: Influences of Information and Motivation on Attention and Interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23: 1–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forbes, Chad E. and Schmader, Toni (2010). Retraining Attitudes and Stereotypes to Affect Motivation and Cognitive Capacity under Stereotype Threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(5): 740–754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, Jonathan B., Pauker, Kristin, Apfelbaum, Evan P., and Ambady, Nalini (2010). Continuous Dynamics in the Real-Time Perception of Race. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1): 179–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaertner, Samuel L. and Dovidio, John F. (1977). The Subtlety of White Racism, Arousal and Helping Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35(10): 691–707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George-Jackson, Casey E. (2011). STEM Switching: Examining Departures of Undergraduate Women in STEM Fields. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 17(2): 149–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, Daniel T. (1998). Ordinary Personology. In Gilbert, Daniel T., Lindzey, Gardner, and Fiske, Susan T. (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology, pp. 89–150. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin (1999). Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, Peter and Fiske, Susan T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3): 491–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., Adetoun, B., Osagie, J. E., Akande, A., Alao, A., Annetje, B., Willemsen, T. M., Chipeta, K., Dardenne, B., Dijksterhuis, A., Wigboldus, D., Eckes, T., Six-Materna, I., Expósito, F., Moya, M., Foddy, M., Kim, H., Lameiras, M., Sotelo, M. J., Mucchi-Faina, A., Romani, M., Sakalli, N., Udegbe, B., Yamamoto, M., Ui, M., Ferreira, M. C., and López, W. L. (2000). Beyond Prejudice as Simple Antipathy: Hostile and Benevolent Sexism Across Cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5): 763–775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Fiske, S. T., Eckes, T., Masser, B., Volpato, C., Manganelli, A. M., Pek, J. C., Huang, L. L., Sakalli-Ugurlu, N., Castro, Y. Rodríguez, Pereira, M. L., Willemsen, T. M., Brunner, A., Six-Materna, I., and Wells, R. (2004). Bad but Bold: Ambivalent Attitudes Toward Men Predict Gender Inequality in 16 Nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(5): 713–728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goff, Phillip Atiba, Di Leone, Brooke Allison Lewis, and Kahn, Kimberly Barsamian (2012). Racism Leads to Pushups: How Racial Discrimination Threatens Subordinate Men's Masculinity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5): 1111–1116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goff, Phillip Atiba, Eberhardt, Jennifer L., Williams, Melissa J., and Jackson, Matthew Christian (2008). Not Yet Human: Implicit Knowledge, Historical Dehumanization and Contemporary Consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(2): 292–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goff, Phillip Atiba, Thomas, Margaret A., and Jackson, Matthew Christian (2008). ‘Ain't I a Woman?’: Towards an Intersectional Approach to Person Perception and Group-Based Harms. Sex Roles, 59(5-6): 392–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwald, Anthony G., McGhee, Debbie E., and Schwartz, Jordan L. K. (1998). Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6): 1464–1480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inman, Mary L. and Baron, Robert S. (1996). Influence of Prototypes on Perceptions of Prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4): 727–739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johns, Michael, Schmader, Toni, and Martens, Andy (2005). Knowing Is Half the Battle: Teaching Stereotype Threat as a Means of Improving Women's Math Performance. Psychological Science, 16(3): 175–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, Kerri L., Freeman, Jonathan B., and Pauker, Kristin (2012). Race is Gendered: How Covarying Phenotypes and Stereotypes Bias Sex Categorization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(1): 116–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, James M. (1996). Prejudice and Racism. New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities.Google ScholarPubMed
Kahn, Kimberly Barsamian and Davies, Paul G. (2011). Differentially Dangerous? Phenotypic Racial Stereotypicality Increases Implicit Bias Among Ingroup and Outgroup Members. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 14(4): 569–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, Cheryl R. and Miller, Carol T. (2001). Stop Complaining! The Social Costs of Making Attributions to Discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(2): 254–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, Cheryl R. and Miller, Carol T. (2003). Derogating the Victim: The Interpersonal Consequences of Blaming Events on Discrimination. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6(3): 227–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, Cheryl R. and Miller, Carol T. (2004). A Stress and Coping Perspective on Confronting Sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(2): 168–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurzban, Robert, Tooby, John, and Cosmides, Leda (2001). Can Race be Erased? Coalitional Computation and Social Categorization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(26): 15387–15392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, Shana, Sinclair, Stacey, Veniegas, Rosemary C., and Taylor, Pamela L. (2002). Perceived Discrimination in the Context of Multiple Group Memberships. Psychological Science, 13(6): 557–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahalingam, Ramaswami (2007). Beliefs about Chastity, Machismo, and Caste Identity: A Cultural Psychology of Gender. Sex Roles, 56(3-4): 239–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markus, Hazel R. and Kitayama, Shinobu (1991). Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2): 224–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markus, Hazel R., Mullally, Patricia R., and Kitayama, Shinobu (1997). Selfways: Diversity in Modes of Cultural Participation. In Neisser, Ulric and Jopling, David A. (Eds.), The Conceptual Self in Context, pp. 13–61. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, Hale and Finn, Stephen E. (2010). Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Massey, Douglas S., Charles, Camille. Z., Lundy, Garvey F., and Fischer, Mary J. (2011). The Source of the River: The Social Origins of Freshmen at America's Selective Colleges and Universities. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
McCall, Leslie (2005). The Complexity of Intersectionality. Signs, 30(3): 1771–1800.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, Melissa M., Navarrete, Carlos David, and Sidanius, Jim (2011). Developing a Theory of Gendered Prejudice: An Evolutionary and Social Dominance Perspective. In Kramer, Roderick M., Leonardelli, Geoffrey J., and Livingston, Robert W. (Eds.), Social Cognition, Social Identity, and Intergroup Relations: A Festschrift in Honor of Marilynn Brewer, pp. 189–220. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
McMahon, Jean and Kahn, Kimberly Barsamian (Forthcoming). Benevolent Racism? Target Race as a Predictor of Benevolent Sexism.Google Scholar
Merritt, Rebecca Davis and Harrison, Teion Wells (2006). Gender and Ethnicity Attributions to a Gender- and Ethnicity-Unspecified Individual: Is There a People = White Male Bias? Sex Roles, 54(11-12): 787–797.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moss-Racusin, Corinne A. and Rudman, Laurie A. (2010). Disruptions in Women's Self-Promotion: The Backlash Avoidance Model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(4): 186–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, Mary C., Steele, Claude M., and Gross, James J. (2007). Signaling Threat: How Situational Cues Affect Women in Math, Science, and Engineering Settings. Psychological Science, 18(10): 879–885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Navarrete, Carlos David, McDonald, Melissa M., Molina, Ludwin E., and Sidanius, Jim (2010). Prejudice at the Nexus of Race and Gender: An Outgroup Male Target Hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(6): 933–945.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Navarrete, Carlos David, Olsson, Andreas, Ho, Arnold K., Mendes, Wendy Berry, Thomsen, Lotte, and Sidanius, James (2009). Fear Extinction to an Outgroup Face: The Role of Target Gender. Psychological Science, 20(2): 155–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pager, Devah (2003). The Mark of a Criminal Record. American Journal of Sociology, 108(5): 937–975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parent, Mike C., DeBlaere, Cirleen, and Moradi, Bonnie (Eds.) (2013). Special Issue: Intersections of LGBT, Racial/Ethnic Minority, and Gender Identities. Sex Roles, 68(11-12).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pelham, Brett W. and Blanton, Hart (2006). Conducting Research in Psychology. Portland, OR: Book News Inc.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, Thomas F. (1998). Intergroup Contact Theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49: 65–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phinney, Jean S. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A New Scale for Use with Diverse Groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2): 156–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purdie-Vaughns, Valerie and Eibach, Richard P. (2008). Intersectional Invisibility: The Distinct Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple Subordinate-Group Identities. Sex Roles, 59(5-6): 377–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roy, Robin E., Weibust, Kristin S., and Miller, Carol T. (2009). If She's a Feminist it Must Not be Discrimination: The Power of the Feminist Label on Observers' Attributions About a Sexist Event. Sex Roles, 60(5-6): 422–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudman, Laurie A. and Glick, Peter (1999). Feminized Management and Backlash Toward Agentic Women: The Hidden Costs to Women of a Kinder, Gentler Image of Middle Managers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(5): 1004–1010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rydell, Robert J., McConnell, Allen R., and Beilock, Sian L. (2009). Multiple Social Identities and Stereotype Threat: Imbalance, Accessibility, and Working Memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5): 949–966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schertzer, Susan M. B., Laufer, Daniel, Silvera, David H., and McBride, J. Brad (2008). A Cross-Cultural Validation of a Gender Role Identity Scale in Marketing. International Marketing Review, 25(3): 312–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmader, Toni and Johns, Michael (2003). Converging Evidence that Stereotype Threat Reduces Working Memory Capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3): 440–452.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sellers, Robert M., Rowley, Stephanie A. J., Chavous, Tabbye M., Shelton, J. Nicole, and Smith, Mia A. (1997). Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A Preliminary Investigation of Reliability and Construct Validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4): 805–815.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sellers, Robert M., Smith, Mia A., Shelton, J. Nicole, Rowley, Stephanie A. J., and Chavous, Tabbye M. (1998). Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: A Reconceptualization of African American Racial Identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1): 18–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seng, Julia S., Lopez, William D., Sperlich, Mickey, Hamama, Lydia, and Meldrum, Caroline D. Reed (2012). Marginalized Identities, Discrimination Burden, and Mental Health: Empirical Exploration of an Interpersonal-level Approach to Modeling Intersectionality. Social Science & Medicine, 75(12): 2437–2445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sesko, Amanda K. and Biernat, Monica (2010). Prototypes of Race and Gender: The Invisibility of Black Women. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(2): 356–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shields, Stephanie A. (2008). Gender: An Intersectionality Perspective. Sex Roles, 59(5-6): 301–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, Jim and Pratto, Felicia (1999). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, Jim and Veniegas, Rosemary C. (2000). Gender and Race Discrimination: The Interactive Nature of Disadvantage. In Oskamp, Stuart (Ed.), Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination: The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology, pp. 47–69. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Smith, Eliot R. and Zárate, Michael A. (1992). Exemplar-Based Model of Social Judgment. Psychological Review, 99(1): 3–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spencer, Steven J., Steele, Claude M., and Quinn, Diane M. (1999). Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35: 4–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, Claude M., Spencer, Steven J., and Aronson, Joshua (2002). Contending with Group Image: The Psychology of Stereotype and Social Identity Threat. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34: 379–440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swim, Janet K. and Stangor, Charles (Eds.) (1998). Prejudice: The Target's Perspective. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Tajfel, Henri and Turner, John C. (1979). An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict. In Austin, William G. and Worchel, Stephen (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, pp. 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks Cole.Google Scholar
Townsend, Tiffany G. (2008). Protecting Our Daughters: Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender in African American Mothers' Socialization of Their Daughters' Heterosexuality. Sex Roles, 59(5-6): 429–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trail, Thomas E., Goff, Phillip A., Bradbury, Thomas N., and Karney, Benjamin R. (2012). The Costs of Racism for Marriage: How Racial Discrimination Hurts, and Ethnic Identity Protects, Newlywed Marriages Among Latinos. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(4): 454–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tucker, M. Belinda and Mitchell-Kernan, Claudia (1990). New Trends in Black American Interracial Marriage: The Social Structural Context. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52(1): 209–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vandello, Joseph A., Bosson, Jennifer K., Cohen, Dov, Burnaford, Rochelle M., and Weaver, Jonathan R. (2008). Precarious Manhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6): 1325–1339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vandiver, Beverly J., Cross, William E. Jr., Worrell, Frank C., and Fhagen-Smith, Peony E. (2002). Validating the Cross Racial Identity Scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(1): 71–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, Samuel, Spohn, Cassia, and DeLone, Miriam (2004). The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.Google Scholar
Warner, Leah (2008). A Best Practices Guide to Intersectional Approaches in Psychological Research. Sex Roles, 59(5-6): 454–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Timothy D., Aronson, Elliot, and Carlsmith, Kevin (2010). The Art of Laboratory Experimentation. In Fiske, Susan T., Gilbert, Daniel T., and Lindzey, Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology, pp. 51–81. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Wilson, William Julius (1997). When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New York: Alfred Knopf.Google Scholar
Wood, Wendy and Eagly, Alice H. (2009). Gender Identity. In Leary, Mark R. and Hoyle, Rick H. (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior, pp. 109–125. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Wood, Wendy and Eagly, Alice H. (2010). Gender. In Fiske, Susan T., Gilbert, Daniel T., and Lindzey, Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology, pp. 629–667. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Zárate, Michael A. and Smith, Eliot R. (1990). Person Categorization and Stereotyping. Social Cognition, 8(2): 161–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar