Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-lrblm Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-22T06:47:40.876Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

CONCEPTUALIZING RACIAL DISPARITIES IN HEALTH

Advancement of a Socio-Psychobiological Approach

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 April 2011

David H. Chae ,
Amani M. Nuru-Jeter ,
Karen D. Lincoln  and
Darlene D. Francis
David H. Chae*
Affiliation:
Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University
Amani M. Nuru-Jeter
Affiliation:
School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley
Karen D. Lincoln
Affiliation:
School of Social Work, University of Southern California
Darlene D. Francis
Affiliation:
School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley
*
David H. Chae, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Room 512, Atlanta, Georgia 30322. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although racial disparities in health have been documented both historically and in more contemporary contexts, the frameworks used to explain these patterns have varied, ranging from earlier theories regarding innate racial differences in biological vulnerability, to more recent theories focusing on the impact of social inequalities. However, despite increasing evidence for the lack of a genetic definition of race, biological explanations for the association between race and health continue in public health and medical discourse. Indeed, there is considerable debate between those adopting a “social determinants” perspective of race and health and those focusing on more individual-level psychological, behavioral, and biologic risk factors. While there are a number of scientifically plausible and evolving reasons for the association between race and health, ranging from broader social forces to factors at the cellular level, in this essay we argue for the need for more transdisciplinary approaches that specify determinants at multiple ecological levels of analysis. We posit that contrasting ways of examining race and health are not necessarily incompatible, and that more productive discussions should explicitly differentiate between determinants of individual health from those of population health; and between inquiries addressing racial patterns in health from those seeking to explain racial disparities in health. Specifically, we advance a socio-psychobiological framework, which is both historically grounded and evidence-based. This model asserts that psychological and biological factors, while playing a central role in determining individual risk for poor health, are relatively less consequential for understanding racial disparities in health at the population level. Such a framework emphasizes the etiologic role of social inequities in generating and perpetuating racial disparities in health and highlights their impact on psychological, behavioral, and biological disease processes.

Keywords

RaceRacismRacial Health DisparitiesPsychobiologyStress
Type
Moving Forward in Studying Racial Disparities in Health
Information
Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race , Volume 8 , Issue 1: Special Issue: Racial Inequality and Health , Spring 2011 , pp. 63 - 77
Copyright
Copyright © W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Acevedo-Garcia, Dolores, Lochner, Kimberly A., Osypuk, Theresa L., and Subramanian, S.V. (2003). Future Directions in Residential Segregation and Health Research: A Multilevel Approach. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2): 215–221.Google Scholar
Agarwal, Dharam P., Harada, Shoji, and Goedde, Werner (1981). Racial Differences in Biological Sensitivity to Ethanol: The Role of Alcohol Dehydrogenase and Aldehyde Dehydrogenase Isozymes. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 5(1): 12–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Althusser, Louis (1971). Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses. In Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, pp. 121–176. London: New Left Books.Google Scholar
Augstein, Hannah F. (1996). Race: The Origins of an Idea, 1760–1850. Bristol, England: Thoemmes Press.Google Scholar
Bennett, Gary G., Wolin, Kathleen Yaus, Robinson, Elwood L., Rowler, Sherrye, and Edwards, Christopher L. (2005). Perceived Racial/Ethnic Harassment and Tobacco Use Among African American Young Adults. American Journal of Public Health, 95(2): 238–240.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bobo, Lawrence, Kluegel, James R., and Smith, Ryan A. (1997). Laissez-Faire Racism: The Crystallization of a Kinder, Gentler Antiblack Ideology. In Tuch, Steven A. and Marin, Jack K. (Eds.), Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change, pp. 15–42. Westport, CT: Praeger.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonham, Vence L. (2010). Toward a More Nuanced Conversation: The Role of Genetics in Understanding Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants, 23(1): 49–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braveman, Paula (2006). Health Disparities and Health Equity: Concepts and Measurement. Annual Review of Public Health, 27: 167–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrd, Michael W. and Clayton, Linda A. (2000). An American Health Dilemma: A Medical History of African Americans and the Problem of Race. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Chae, David H., Gavin, Amelia R., and Takeuchi, David T. (2006). Smoking Prevalence Among Asian Americans: Findings From the National Latino and Asian American Study (NLAAS). Public Health Reports, 121(6): 755–763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chae, David H., Lincoln, Karen D., Adler, Nancy E., and Syme, S. Leonard (2010). Do Experiences of Racial Discrimination Predict Cardiovascular Disease Among African American Men? The Moderating Role of Internalized Negative Racial Group Attitudes. Social Science and Medicine, 71(6): 1182–1188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chae, David H., Takeuchi, David T., Barbeau, Elizabeth M., Bennett, Gary G., Lindsey, Jane C., Stoddard, Anne M., and Krieger, Nancy (2008a). Alcohol Disorders Among Asian Americans: Associations with Unfair Treatment, Racial/Ethnic Discrimination, and Ethnic Identification (The National Latino and Asian Americans Study, 2002–2003). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(11): 973–979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chae, David H., Takeuchi, David T., Barbeau, Elizabeth M., Bennett, Gary G., Lindsey, Jane, and Krieger, Nancy (2008b). Unfair Treatment, Racial/Ethnic Discrimination, and Smoking Among Asian Americans in the National Latino and Asian American Study. American Journal of Public Health, 98(3): 485–492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chae, David H. and Walters, Karina L. (2009). Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity Attitudes in Relation to Self-Rated Health and Physical Pain and Impairment Among Two-Spirit American Indians/Alaska Natives. American Journal of Public Health, 99(Suppl 1): S144–S151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chae, David H. and Yoshikawa, Hirokazu (2008). Perceived Group Devaluation, Depression, and HIV-Risk Behavior Among Asian Gay Men. Health Psychology, 27(2): 140–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chambers, Earle C., Tull, Eugene S., Fraser, Henry S., Mutunhu, Nyasha R., Sobers, Natasha, and Niles, Elisa (2004). The Relationship of Internalized Racism to Body Fat Distribution and Insulin Resistance Among African Adolescent Youth. Journal of the National Medical Association, 96(12): 1594–1598.Google ScholarPubMed
Clark, Rodney, Anderson, Norman B., Clark, Venessa R., and Williams, David R (1999). Racism as a Stressor for African Americans. American Psychologist, 54(10): 805–816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cress, Rosemary D. and Holly, Elizabeth A. (1997). Incidence of Cutaneous Melanoma Among Non-Hispanic Whites, Hispanics, Asians, and Blacks: An Analysis of California Cancer Registry Data, 1988–93. Cancer Causes and Control, 8(2): 246–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diez Roux, Ana V., Ranjit, Nalini, Jenny, Nancy S., Shea, Steven, Cushman, Mary, Pitzpatrick, Annette, and Seeman, Theresa (2009). Race/Ethnicity and Telomere Length in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Aging Cell, 8(3): 251–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolinoy, Dana C. and Jirtle, Randy L. (2008). Environmental Epigenomics in Human Health and Disease. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, 49: 4–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doyal, Lesley (1979). The Political Economy of Health. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Duthie, Susan J. (2010). Epigenetic Modifications and Human Pathologies: Cancer and CVD. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 70: 47–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellen, Ingrid G., Mijanovich, Tod, and Dillman, Keri-Nicole (2001). Neighborhood Effects on Health: Exploring the Links and Assessing the Evidence. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23(3): 391–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epel, Elissa S., Blackburn, Elizabeth H., Lin, Jue, Dhabhar, Firdaus S., Adler, Nancy E., Morrow, Jason D., and Cawthon, Richard M. (2004). Accelerated Telomere Shortening in Response to Life Stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(49): 17312–17315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farmer, Melissa M. and Ferraro, Kenneth F. (2005). Are Racial Disparities in Health Conditional on Socioeconomic Status? Social Science and Medicine, 60(1): 191–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farmer, Paul (1999). Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Feldman, Marcus W., Lewontin, Richard C., and King, Mary-Claire (2003). Race: A Genetic Melting-Pot. Nature, 424: 374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzpatrick, Annette L., Kronmal, Richard A., Gardner, Jeffrey P., Psaty, Bruce M., Jenny, Nancy S., Tracy, Russell P., Walston, Jeremy, Kimura, Masyuki, and Aviv, Abraham (2007). Leukocyte Telomere Length and Cardiovascular Disease in the Cardiovascular Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 165(1): 14–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fraga, Mario F., Ballestar, Esteban, Paz, Maria F., Ropero, Santiago, Setien, Fernando, Ballestar, Maria L., Heine-Suñer, Damia, Digudosa, Juan C., Urioste, Miguel, Benetez, Javier, Boix-Chornet, Manuel, Sanchez-Aguilera, Abel, Ling, Charlotte, Carlsson, Emma, Poulsen, Pernille, Vaag, Allan, Stephan, Zarko, Spector, Tim D., Wu, Yue-Zhong, Plass, Christoph, and Esteller, Manel (2005). Epigenetic Differences Arise During the Lifetime of Monozygotic Twins. Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(30): 10604–10609.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Francis, Darlene D., Szegda, Kathleen, Campbell, Gregory, Martin, W. David, and Insel, Thomas R. (2003). Epigenetic Sources of Behavioral Differences in Mice. Nature Neuroscience, 6: 445–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fredrickson, George M. (2002). Racism: A Short History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Freire, Paulo (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum.Google Scholar
Gee, Gilbert C., Ro, Annie, Shariff-Marco, Salma, and Chae, David H. (2009). Racial Discrimination and Health Among Asian Americans: Evidence, Assessment, and Directions for Future Research. Epidemiologic Reviews, 31: 130–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geronimus, Arline T., Hicken, Margaret, Keene, Danya, and Bound, Jonathan (2006). “Weathering” and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores Among Blacks and Whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5): 826–833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geronimus, Arline T., Hicken, Margaret T., Pearson, Jay A., Seashols, Sarah J., Brown, Kelly L., and Cruz, Tracey D. (2010). Do US Black Women Experience Stress-Related Accelerated Biological Aging? Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biological Perspective, 21(1): 19–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, Hilary (2004). Social Determinants and Their Unequal Distribution: Clarifying Policy Understandings. The Milbank Quarterly, 82(1): 101–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haney-López, Ian F. (2003). Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Harrell, Jules P., Hall, Sadiki, and Taliaferro, James (2003). Physiologic Responses to Racism and Discrimination: An Assessment of the Evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2): 243–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helms, Janet E. (1995). An Update on Helms's White and People of Color Racial Identity Models. In Ponterorro, Joseph G., Casas, J. Manual, Suzuki, Lisa, and Alexander, Charlene M. (Eds.), Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, pp. 181–198. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Hilmert, Clayton J., Schetter, Christine Dunkel, Dominguez, Tyan Parker, Abdou, Cleopatra, Hobel, Calvin J., Glynn, Laura, and Sandman, Curt (2008). Stress and Blood Pressure During Pregnancy: Racial Differences and Associations with Birthweight. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70(1): 57–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jablonka, Eva, Lachmann, Michael, and Lamb, Marion J. (1992). Evidence, Mechanisms and Models for the Inheritance of Acquired Characters. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 158: 245–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Camara P. (2000). Levels of Racism: A Theoretical Framework and a Gardener's Tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8): 1212–1215.Google Scholar
Kaplan, George A. (2004). What's Wrong with Social Epidemiology, and How Can We Make It Better? Epidemiologic Reviews, 26(1): 124–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, Jennifer, Joiner, Thomas E., and Kwon, Paul (2002). Membership in a Devalued Social Group and Emotional Well-Being: Developing a Model of Personal Self-Esteem, Collective Self-Esteem, and Group Socialization. Sex Roles, 47(9): 419–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katz, Lawrence F., Kling, Jeffery R., and Liebman, Jeffrey B. (2001). Moving to Opportunity in Boston: Early Results of a Randomized Mobility Experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(2): 605–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, Jay S., Cooper, Richard S., and McGee, Daniel L. (1997). Socioeconomic Status and Health in Blacks and Whites: The Problem of Residual Confounding and the Resiliency of Race. Epidemiology, 8(6): 621–628.Google ScholarPubMed
Kressin, Nancy R. and Petersen, Laura A. (2001). Racial Differences in the Use of Invasive Cardiovascular Procedures: Review of the Literature and Prescription for Future Research. Annals of Internal Medicine, 135(5): 352–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy (1994). Epidemiology and the Web of Causation: Has Anyone Seen the Spider? Social Science and Medicine, 39(7): 887–903.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy (1996). What Explains the Public's Health?—A Call for Epidemiologic Theory. Epidemiology, 7(1): 107–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy (2000). Refiguring “Race”: Epidemiology, Racialized Biology, and Biological Expressions of Race Relations. International Journal of Health Services, 30(1): 211–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy (2001). Theories for Social Epidemiology in the 21st Century: An Ecosocial Perspective. International Journal of Epidemiology, 30(4): 668–677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy (2005). Stormy Weather: Race, Gene Expression, and the Science of Health Disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 95(12): 2155–2160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy (2008a). Ladders, Pyramids and Champagne: The Iconography of Health Inequities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62(12): 1098–1104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy (2008b). Proximal, Distal, and the Politics of Causation: What's Level Got to Do With It? American Journal of Public Health, 98(2): 221–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krieger, Nancy (2008c). Does Racism Harm Health? Did Child Abuse Exist Before 1962? On Explicit Questions, Critical Science, and Current Controversies: An Ecosocial Perspective. American Journal of Public Health, 98(9Suppl): S20–S25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krieger, Nancy and Davey Smith, George (2000). Re: “Seeking Causal Explanations in Social Epidemiology.” (Letter). American Journal of Epidemiology, 151(8): 831–832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krieger, Nancy and Davey Smith, George (2004). “Bodies Count,” and Body Counts: Social Epidemiology and Embodying Inequality. Epidemiologic Reviews, 26: 92–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaVeist, Thomas A. (2000). On the Study of Race, Racism, and Health: A Shift From Description to Explanation. International Journal of Health Services, 30(1): 217–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaVeist, Thomas A. (2005). Disentangling Race and Socioeconomic Status: A Key to Understanding Health Inequalities. Journal of Urban Health, 82(3): 26–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, Tené T., Aiello, Allison E., Leurgans, Sue, Kelly, Jeremiah, and Barnes, Lisa L. (2010). Self-Reported Experiences of Everyday Discrimination are Associated with Elevated C-Reactive Protein Levels in Older African-American Adults. Brain Behavior and Immunity, 24(3): 438–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lincoln, Karen D. and Chae, David H. (2010). Stress, Marital Satisfaction, and Psychological Distress Among African Americans. Journal of Family Issues, 31(8): 1081–1105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lydeard, Susan and Jones, Roger (1989). Life Events, Vulnerability and Illness: A Selected Review. Family Practice, 6(4): 307–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, Jack K., Tuch, Steven A., and Roman, Paul M. (2003). Problem Drinking Patterns Among African Americans: The Impacts of Reports of Discrimination, Perceptions of Prejudice, and “Risky” Coping Strategies. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3): 408–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrory, Eamon, Brito, Stephane A., and Viding, Essi (2010). Research Review: The Neurobiology and Genetics of Maltreatment and Adversity. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(10): 1079–1095.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGowan, Patrick O., Sasaki, Aya, D'Alessio, Ana C., Dymov, Sergiy, Labonté, Benoit, Szyf, Moshe, Turecki, Gustavo, and Meaney, Michael J. (2009). Epigenetic Regulation of the Glucocoticoid Receptor in Human Brain Associates with Childhood Abuse. Nature Neuroscience, 12(3): 342–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mountain, Joanna L. and Risch, Neil (2004). Assessing Genetic Contributions to Phenotypic Differences Among ‘Racial’ and ‘Ethnic’ Groups. Nature Genetics, 36: S48–S53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (2009). Disease and Conditions Index. Sickle Cell Anemia: Who Is At Risk? Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.Google Scholar
Noh, Samuel and Kaspar, Violet (2003). Perceived Discrimination and Depression: Moderating Effects of Coping, Acculturation, and Ethnic Support. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2): 232–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nosek, Brian A., Smyth, Frederick L., Hansen, Jeffrey J., Devos, Thierry, Lindner, Nicole M., Ranganath, Kate A., Smith, Colin Tucker, Olson, Kristina R., Chugh, Dolly, Greenwald, Anthony G., and Banaji, Mahzarin R (2007). Pervasiveness and Correlates of Implicit Attitudes and Stereotypes. European Review of Social Psychology, 18: 36–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osypuk, Theresa L., Bates, Lisa M., and Acevedo-Garcia, Dolores (2010). Another Mexican Birthweight Paradox? The Role of Residential Enclaves and Neighborhood Poverty in the Birthweight of Mexican-Origin Infants. Social Science and Medicine, 70(4): 550–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osypuk, Theresa L., Roux, Ana V. Diez, Hadley, Craig, and Kandula, Namratha R. (2009). Are Immigrant Enclaves Healthy Places to Live? The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Social Science and Medicine, 69(1): 110–120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pohorecky, Larissa A. (1991). Stress and Alcohol Interaction: An Update of Human Research. Alcohol: Clinical and Experimental Research, 15(3): 438–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romero, Andrea J. and Roberts, Robert E. (2003). The Impact of Multiple Dimensions of Ethnic Identity on Discrimination and Adolescents' Self-Esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(11): 2288–2305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satcher, David (2010). Include a Social Determinants of Health Approach to Reduce Health Inequities. Public Health Reports, 125(Suppl 4): 6–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, Robert S. (2001). Racial Profiling in Medical Research. New England Journal of Medicine, 344: 1392–1393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sellers, Robert M. and Shelton, Nicole J. (2003). The Role of Racial Identity in Perceived Racial Discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5): 1079–1092.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sellers, Robert M., Smith, Mia A., Shelton, J. Nicole, Rowley, Stephanie A.J., and Chavous, Tabbye M. (1998). Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity: A Reconceptualization of African American Racial Identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1): 18–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smedley, Brian D., Stith, Adrienne Y., and Nelson, Alan R. (Eds.) (2003). Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Sue, Derald Wing, Bucceri, Jennifer, Lin, Annie I., Nadal, Kevin L., and Torino, Gina C. (2007). Racial Microaggessions and the Asian American Experience. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13(1): 72–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Syme, S. Leonard (1987). Social Determinants of Disease. Annals of Clinical Research, 19(2): 44–52.Google ScholarPubMed
Syme, S. Leonard (1996). Rethinking Disease: Where Do We Go From Here? Annals of Epidemiology, 6(5): 463–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, Henri and Turner, John (1986). The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior. In Worchel, Stephen and Austin, William G. (Eds.), The Psychology of Intergroup Relations, pp. 2–24. Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall.Google Scholar
Tapper, Melbourne (1997). An ‘Anthropathology’ of the ‘American Negro’: Anthropology, Genetics, and the New Racial Science, 1940–1952. Social History of Medicine, 10(2): 263–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, Teletia R., Williams, Carla D., Makambi, Kepher H., Mouton, Charles, Harrell, Jules P., Cozier, Yvette, Palmer, Julie R., Rosenberg, Lynn, and Adams-Campbell, Lucile L. (2007). Racial Discrimination and Breast Cancer Incidence in US Black Women: The Black Women's Health Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(1): 46–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor-Clark, Kalahn Alexandra, Mebane, Felicia E., SteelFisher, Gillian K., and Blendon, Robert J. (2007). News of Disparity: Content Analysis of News Coverage of African American Healthcare Inequalities in the USA, 1994–2004. Social Science & Medicine, 65(3): 405–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tull, Eugene S., Sheu, Yah-Tyng, Butler, Cleve, and Cornelious, Carimah (2005). Relationships Between Perceived Stress, Coping Behavior and Cortisol Secretion in Women with High and Low Levels of Internalized Racism. Journal of the National Medical Association, 97(2): 206–212.Google ScholarPubMed
Tull, Eugene S., Wickramasuriya, Tissa, Taylor, Jerome, Smith-Burns, Vara, Brown, Margot, Champagnie, Georgette, Daye, Kimberly, Donaldson, Kathryn, Solomon, Natalie, Walker, Steven, Fraser, Henry, and Jordan, Oscar W. (1999). Relationship of Internalized Racism to Abdominal Obesity and Blood Pressure in Afro-Caribbean Women. Journal of the Naitonal Medical Association, 91(8): 447–452.Google ScholarPubMed
United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923). 261 U.S. 204.Google Scholar
Wailoo, Keith (1996). Genetic Marker of Segregation: Sickle Cell Anemia, Thalassemia, and Racial Ideology in American Medical Writing, 1920–1950. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 18(3): 305–320.Google ScholarPubMed
Walton, Emily (2010). Residential Segregation and Birth Weight Among Racial and Ethnic Minorities in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(4): 427–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waterland, Robert A. and Jirtle, Randy L. (2004). Early Nutrition, Epigenetic Changes at Transposons and Imprinted Genes, and Enhanced Susceptibility to Adult Chronic Diseases. Nutrition, 20(1): 63–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whitehead, Margaret (1992). The Concepts and Principles of Equity and Health. International Journal of Health Services, 22(3): 429–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R. and Collins, Chiquita (2001). Racial Residential Segregation: A Fundamental Cause of Racial Disparities in Health. Public Health Reports, 116(5): 404–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R., González, Hector M., Neighbors, Harold, Nesse, Randolph, Abelson, Jamie M., Sweetman, Julie, and Jackson, James S. (2007). Prevalence and Distribution of Major Depressive Disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Results From the National Survey of American Life. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(3): 305–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R., Neighbors, Harold W., and Jackson, James S. (2003). Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2): 200–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, David R. and Williams-Morris, Ruth (2000). Racism and Mental Health: The African American Experience. Ethnicity and Health, 5(4): 243–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, Franklin D. and Hammer, Roger B. (2001). Ethnic Residential Segregation and Its Consequences. In O'Connor, Alice, Tilly, Chris, and Bobo, Lawrence D. (Eds.), Urban Inequality: Evidence From Four Cities, pp. 272–303. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Wood, Alastair J.J. (2001). Racial Differences in the Response to Drugs-Pointers to Genetic Differences. New England Journal of Medicine, 344(18): 1394–1396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zea, María Cecilia, Reisen, Carol A., and Poppen, Paul J. (1999). Psychological Well-Being Among Latino Lesbians and Gay Men. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5(4): 371–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar