Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T06:03:13.111Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

SEVEN MYTHS OF RACE AND THE YOUNG CHILD

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2012

Lawrence A. Hirschfeld*
Affiliation:
Departments of Anthropology and Psychology, New School for Social Research
*
Professor Lawrence A. Hirschfeld, Departments of Anthropology and Psychology, New School for Social Research, 6 East 16thStreet, New York, NY 10003. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Racism reproduces through children. Racial bias is acquired early, and like many early-acquired predilections it is tenaciously resistant to counterevidence. Much of the institutional struggle against racism focuses on children, working to change their attitudes and judgments by addressing what children supposedly have come to know and believe about race. Yet much of what lay folk and educators alike imagine about children's knowledge of race and how they have come to acquire it is inaccurate. This essay is concerned to identify these inaccuracies, present evidence that challenges them, and briefly consider why they—like racialist thinking itself—are so tenaciously held and resistant to counterevidence.

Type
State of the Discipline
Copyright
Copyright © W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aboud, Frances E. (1988). Children and Prejudice. York, NY: B. Blackwell.Google Scholar
Aboud, Frances E. (2003). The Formation of In-Group Favoritism and Out-Group Prejudice in Young Children: Are They Distinct Attitudes? Developmental Psychology, 39(1): 4860.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aboud, Frances E. and Doyle, Anna-Beth (1996). Parental and Peer Influences on Children's Racial Attitudes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations: Special Issue: Prejudice, Discrimination and Conflict, 20(3-4): 371383.Google Scholar
Aboud, Frances E. and Levy, Sheri R. (2000). Interventions to Reduce Prejudice and Discrimination in Children and Adolescents. In Oskamp, Stuart (Ed.), Prejudice and Discrimination, pp. 269293. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Ambady, Nalini, Shih, Margaret, Kim, Amy, and Pittinsky, Todd L. (2001). Stereotype Susceptibility in Children: Effects of Identity Activation on Quantitative Performance. Psychological Science, 12(5): 385390.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict R. O'G. (1983). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Appadurai, Arjun (1990). Topographies of the Self: Praise and Emotion in Hindu India. In Lutz, Catherine A. and Abu-Lughod, Lila (Eds.), Language and the Politics of Emotion, pp. 92112. New York: Cambridge University Press and Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme.Google Scholar
Baillargeon, Renee (2002). The Acquisition of Physical Knowledge in Infancy: A Summary in Eight Lessons. In Smith, Peter K. and Hart, Craig H. (Eds.), Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Cognitive Development, pp. 4783. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Banaji, Mahzarin and Greenwald, Anthony G. (1994). Implicit Stereotyping and Prejudice. In Zanna, Mark P. and Olson, James M. (Eds.), The Psychology of Prejudice: The Ontario Symposium, vol. 7, pp. 5576. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Yair, Ziv, Talee, Lamy, Dominique, and Hodes, Richard M. (2006). Nature and Nurture in Own-Race Face Processing. Psychological Science, 17(2): 159163.Google Scholar
Baron, Andrew Scott and Banaji, Mahzarin R. (2006). The Development of Implicit Attitudes: Evidence of Race Evaluations from Ages 6 and 10 and Adulthood. Psychological Science, 17(1): 5358.Google Scholar
Bastian, Brock and Haslam, Nick (2007). Psychological Essentialism and Attention Allocation: Preferences for Stereotype-Consistent Versus Stereotype-Inconsistent Information. The Journal of Social Psychology, 147(5): 531541.Google Scholar
Bigler, Rebecca S. (2004). How Parents Shape the Development of Values in Children. Contemporary Psychology, 43: 837838.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bigler, Rebecca S. and Hughes, Lulie Milligan (2010). Reasons for Skepticism about the Efficacy of Simulated Social Contact Interventions. American Psychologist, 65(2): 132133.Google Scholar
Birnbaum, Dana, Deeb, Inas, Segall, Gili, Ben-Eliyahu, Adar, and Diesendruck, Gil (2010). The Development of Social Essentialism: The Case of Israeli Children's Inferences about Jews and Arabs. Child Development, 81(3): 757777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blais, D. (2010). The Perils of Color Blindness. In Marsh, J., Mendoza-Denton, R., and Smith, J. A. (Eds.), Are We Born Racist?: New Insights from Neuroscience and Positive Psychology, pp. 7174. Boston, MA: Beacon Pres.Google Scholar
Branch, Curtis and Newcombe, Nora (1980). Racial Attitudes of Black Preschoolers as Related to Parental Civil Rights Activism. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly: Journal of Developmental Psychology, 26(4): 425428.Google Scholar
Bronson, Po and Merryman, Ashley (2009). See Baby Discriminate. Newsweek, September 14, pp. 52–60.Google Scholar
Brooks, Jeanne and Lewis, Michael (1976). Infants' Responses to Strangers: Midget, Adult, and Child. Child Development, 47(2): 323332.Google Scholar
Bushnell, I. W., Sai, F., and Mullin, J. T. (1989). Neonatal Recognition of the Mother's Face. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7(1): 315.Google Scholar
Chalabaev, Aïna, Stone, Jeff, Sarrazin, Philippe, and Croizet, Jean-Claude (2008). Investigating Physiological and Self-Reported Mediators of Stereotype Lift Effects on a Motor Task. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30(1): 1826.Google Scholar
Clark, K. B. and Clark, M. K. (1939). The Development of Consciousness of Self and the Emergence of Racial Identification in Negro Preschool Children. Journal of Social Psychology, 10: 591599.Google Scholar
Clark, Kenneth B. and Clark, Mamie P. (1950). Emotional Factors in Racial Identification and Preference in Negro Children. Journal of Negro Education, 19: 341350.Google Scholar
Cosmides, Leda, Tooby, John, and Kurzban, Robert (2003). Perceptions of Race. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(4): 173179.Google Scholar
Cross, William E. Jr. (1991). Shades of Diversity in African-American Identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Csibra, Gergely (2010). Recognizing Communicative Intentions in Infancy. Mind and Language, 25(2): 141168.Google Scholar
Derman-Sparks, Louise and Ramsey, Patricia G. (2011). What if All the Kids Are White? Anti-Bias Multicultural Education with Young Children and Families. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
Devine, Patricia (1989). Automatic and Controlled Processes in Prejudice: The Role of Stereotypes and Personal Beliefs. In Pratkanis, Anthony R., Breckler, Steven J., and Greenwald, Anthony G. (Eds.), Attitude Structure and Function, pp. 181212. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Diesendruck, Gil and haLevi, Heidi (2006). The Role of Language, Appearance, and Culture in Children's Social Category-Based Induction. Child Development, 77(3): 539553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doyle, Anna-Beth, Rappard, Pamela, and Connolly, Jennifer (1980). Two Solitudes in the Preschool Classroom. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 12(3): 221232.Google Scholar
Fishbein, Harold D. and Imai, Satomi (1993). Preschoolers Select Playmates on the Basis of Gender and Race. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14(3): 303316.Google Scholar
Geertz, Clifford (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gelman, Susan (Forthcoming). Generics as a Window onto Young Children's Concepts. In Pelletier, F. J. (Ed.), Kinds, Things, and Stuff: The Cognitive Side of Generics and Mass Terms. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gelman, Susan A., Ware, Elizabeth A., and Kleinberg, Felicia (2010). Effects of Generic Language on Category Content and Structure. Cognitive Psychology, 61(3): 273301.Google Scholar
Gibson, Kathleen (1996). The Biocultural Human Brain, Migrations, and the Emergence of the Upper Palaeolithic. In Mellars, Paul and Gibson, Kathleen (Eds.), Modeling the Early Human Mind, pp. 3346. Cambridge, UK: The McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar
Harris, Judith Rich (1998). The Nurture Assumption : Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Hart, Adrian (2009). The Myth of Racist Kids: Anti-Racist Policy and the Regulation of School Life. London: Manifesto Club.Google Scholar
Hauser, Marc D., Chomsky, Noam, and Fitch, W. Tecumseh (2002). The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve? Science, 298(5598): 15691579.Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, L. A., Bartmess, E., White, S., and Frith, Uta (2007). Can Autistic Children Predict Behavior by Social Stereotypes? Current Biology, 17(12): R451R452.Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (1995). Do Children Have a Theory of Race? Cognition, 54(2): 209252.Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (1996). Race in the Making : Cognition, Culture, and the Child's Construction of Human Kinds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (2007). Folksociology and the Cognitive Foundations of Culture. Intellectica, 4647(2-3): 191206.Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (2008a). The Bi-Lingual Brain Revisited. Evolutionary Psychology, 6(1): 182185.Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (2008b). Children's Developing Conceptions of Race. In Quintana, Stephen M. and McKown, Clark (Eds.), Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child, pp. 3754. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (1993). Discovering Social Difference: The Role of Appearance in the Development of Racial Awareness. Cognitive Psychology, 25: 317350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horowitz, R. E. (1939). Racial Aspects of Self-Identification in Nursery School Children. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 7: 9199.Google Scholar
Hughes, Julie M., Bigler, Rebecca S., and Levy, Sheri R. (2007). Consequences of Learning about Historical Racism among European American and African American Children. Child Development, 78(6): 16891705.Google Scholar
Katz, P. (1983). Developmental Foundations of Gender and Racial Attitudes. In Leahy, R. (Ed.), The Child's Construction of Social Inequality. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kelly, David J., Liu, Shaoying, Ge, Liezhong, Quinn, Paul C., Slater, Alan M., Lee, Kang, Liu, Qinyao, and Pascalis, Olivier (2007). Cross-Race Preferences for Same-Race Faces Extend Beyond the African Versus Caucasian Contrast in Three-Month-Old Infants. Infancy, 11(1): 8795.Google Scholar
Kelly, David J., Liu, Shaoying, Lee, Kang, Quinn, Paul C., Pascalis, Olivier, Slater, Alan M., and Ge, Liezhong, (2009). Development of the Other-Race Effect During Infancy: Evidence Toward Universality? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 104(1): 105114.Google Scholar
Kinzler, Katherine D., Dupoux, Emmanuel, and Spelke, Elizabeth S. (2007). The Native Language of Social Cogniti]on. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(30): 1257712580.Google Scholar
Kinzler, Katherine D. and Spelke, Elizabeth S. (2011). Do Infants Show Social Preferences for People Differing in Race? Cognition, 119(1): 19.Google Scholar
Kohl, Herbert R. (1995). Should We Burn Babar?: Essays on Children's Literature and the Power of Stories. New York: New Press.Google Scholar
Liu, Shaoying, Quinn, Paul C., Wheeler, Andrea, Xiao, Naiqi, Ge, Liezhong, and Lee, Kang (2010). Similarity and Difference in the Processing of Same- and Other-Race Faces as Revealed by Eye Tracking in 4- to 9-Month-Olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 108(1): 180189.Google Scholar
Mandler, J. (1992). How to Build a Baby: Conceptual Primitives. Cognitive Psychology, 23: 263298.Google Scholar
Marx, David M. and Stapel, Diederik A. (2006). Understanding Stereotype Lift: On the Role of the Social Self. Social Cognition, 24(6): 776791.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mehler, J., Jusczyk, P., Lambertz, G., Halsted, N., Bertoncini, J., and Amiel-Tison, C. (1988). A Precursor of Language Acquisition in Young Infants. Cognition, 29: 143178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendoza-Denton, Roldolfo (2011). Should We Talk to Young Children about Race? Psychology Today. April 28. ⟨http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/are-we-born-racist/201104/should-we-talk-young-children-about-race⟩ (accessed January 6, 2012).Google Scholar
Miller, Cynthia L. (1983). Developmental Changes in Male/Female Voice Classification by Infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 6(3): 313330.Google Scholar
Morning, Ann Juanita (2011). The Nature of Race: How Scientists Think and Teach about Human Difference. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, Jeanne B. (1981). Indirect Influences on Children's Racial Attitudes. Educational Leadership, 38(4): 286287.Google Scholar
Mountain, Joanna L. and Risch, Neil (2004). Assessing Genetic Contributions to Phenotypic Differences among “Racial” and “Ethnic” Groups. Nature Genetics, 36: S36S48.Google Scholar
Pascalis, Olivier and Kelly, David J. (2009). The Origins of Face Processing in Humans: Phylogeny and Ontogeny. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(2): 200209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramsey, Patricia G. (1987). Young Children's Thinking about Ethnic Differences. In Phinney, J. and Rotheram, M. (Eds.), Children's Ethnic Socialization, pp. 5672. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Rodgers, Richard and Hammerstein, Oscar (1949). South Pacific: Vocal Selection. New York: Williamson Music.Google Scholar
Sangrigoli, Sandy and de Schonen, Scania (2004). Recognition of Own-Race and Other-Race Faces by Three-Month-Old Infants. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(7): 12191227.Google Scholar
Shutts, Kristin, Banaji, Mahzarin R., and Spelke, Elizabeth S. (2010). Social Categories Guide Young Children's Preferences for Novel Objects. Developmental Science, 13(4): 599610.Google Scholar
Slater, Alan, Von der Schulenburg, Charlotte, Brown, Elizaabeth, Badenoch, Marion, Butterworth, George, Parsons, Sonia, and Samuels, Curtis (1998). Newborn Infants Prefer Attractive Faces. Infant Behavior and Development, 21(2): 345354.Google Scholar
Spelke, Elizabeth (1990). Principles of Object Perception. Cognitive Science, 14: 2956.Google Scholar
Spencer, Margaret (1983). Children's Cultural Values and Parental Child Rearing Strategies. Developmental Review, 3(4): 351370.Google Scholar
Sperber, Dan and Hirschfeld, Lawrence A. (2006). Culture and Modularity. In Carruthers, Peter, Laurence, Stephen, and Stich, Stephen P. (Eds.), The Innate Mind, vol. 2: Culture and Cognition, pp. 149164. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Steele, Claude M. and Aronson, Joshua (1995). Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5): 797811.Google Scholar
Stevenson, Harold W. and Stewart, Edward C. (1958). A Developmental Study of Racial Awareness in Young Children. Child Development, 29: 399409.Google Scholar
Stringer, Chris (2011). The Origin of Our Species. London: Allen Lane.Google Scholar
Tattersal, I. and Schwartz, J. (2000). Extinct Humans. New York: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Trager, Helen G. and Yarrow, Marian Radke (1952). They Learn What They Live: Prejudice in Young Children. Oxford, UK: Harper.Google Scholar
Turiel, Elliot (2002). The Culture of Morality: Social Development, Context, and Conflict. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Van Ausdale, Debra and Feagin, Joe R. (2001). The First R: How Children Learn Race and Racism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Walton, G. (2003). Stereotype Lift. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5): 456467.Google Scholar
Waxman, Sandra R. (2010). Names Will Never Hurt Me? Naming and the Development of Racial and Gender Categories in Preschool-Aged Children. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4): 593610.Google Scholar
Williams, John E., Boswell, Donna A., and Best, Deborah L. (1975). Evaluative Responses of Preschool Children to the Colors White and Black. Child Development, 46(2): 501508.Google Scholar