Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-d8cs5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-10T14:40:13.078Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mental Health Status and Related Factors of Citizens 6 Months after Mass Death and Injury Due to Crowd Crush Incident: Focused on the Itaewon Disaster in 2022

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2025

Yun-Jung Choi Open the ORCID record for Yun-Jung Choi [Opens in a new window] ,
Heewon Song Open the ORCID record for Heewon Song [Opens in a new window] ,
Hae-In Namgung Open the ORCID record for Hae-In Namgung [Opens in a new window]  and
Na rae Lee Open the ORCID record for Na rae Lee [Opens in a new window]
Yun-Jung Choi
Affiliation:
Professor, Red Cross College of Nursing, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea
Heewon Song*
Affiliation:
Professor, Department of Nursing, Dongyang University, Yeongju, Korea
Hae-In Namgung
Affiliation:
Doctoral student, Red Cross College of Nursing, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea
Na rae Lee
Affiliation:
Master Student, Red Cross College of Nursing, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea
*
Corresponding author: Heewon Song; Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective

Crowd crush disasters result in psychological risks such as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This descriptive research study identified the mental health status of Koreans after the Itaewon crowd crush disaster and explored related factors.

Methods

Data were collected May 2-9, 2023 using an online survey. Participants included 205 adults aged 19-69 years recruited through South Korean local and online university communities. Their mental health and related factors were measured at 6 months post-disaster. Data were analyzed using IBM® SPSS® Statistics 26.0. and R 3.4.2.

Results

Significant differences in anxiety, depression, and PTSD among participants who experienced the disaster as victims; changes in drinking frequency and alcohol consumption; and differences in anxiety and PTSD according to family type were observed. Comparing the 3 and 6 month surveys, there were no significant changes in anxiety, depression, PTSD, general mental health, or mental well-being. When mental health severity was divided according to victimization, a significant difference in the severity of anxiety, depression, and PTSD was observed.

Conclusions

Participants’ levels of anxiety, depression, and PTSD varied according to their direct and indirect experience of the disaster, with higher levels of PTSD even without direct experience with the disaster.

Keywords

alcoholanxietydepressiondisasterfamilycrowd crushpsychological traumaPTSD
Type
Original Research
Information
Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness , Volume 19 , 2025 , e11
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2025. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Society for Disaster Medicine and Public Health, Inc.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Choi, MG, Park, JW, Ji, SH. Risk assessments of crowds at bottlenecks through agent based modelling. J Korean Geograph Soc. 2022;57(6): 595–609. https://doi.org/10.22776/kgs.2022.57.6.595Google Scholar
Kim, HC, Im, HJ, Lee, SH, et al. Establishment of crowd management safety measures based on crowd density risk simulation. J Korean Soc Saf, 2023;38(2):96–103. https://kiss.kstudy.com/Detail/Ar?key=4016805Google Scholar
Barr, D, Drury, J, Butler, T, et al. Beyond “stampedes”: towards a new psychology of crowd crush disasters. Br J Soc Psychol. 2023;00:1–18., https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12666Google ScholarPubMed
Ministry of the Interior and Safety. Ministry of the Interior and Safety, Disaster Safety Management Headquarters Itaewon Incident Briefing. Sejong City: Ministry of the Interior and Safety; November 18, 2022. https://www.mois.go.kr/frt/bbs/type010/commonSelectBoardArticle.do?bbsId=BBSMSTR_000000000008&nttId=96678Google Scholar
Moon, JS. A study on crowd management and crowd control and crowd behavior in multi-crowd gathering events - based on literature research. Korean Police Stud Rev. 2022;21(4):53–74. https://www.earticle.net/Article/A424047CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hong, SC. Social media and the media in the wake of the Itaewon tragedy. Kwanhun Journal. 2023;65(1):50–58. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11231122Google Scholar
Kim, JY. Mourning for Itaewon Halloween tragedy. Inter-Asia Cult Stud. 2023;24(3):567–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649373.2023.2209439CrossRefGoogle Scholar
North, CS, Pfefferbaum, B. Mental health response to community disasters: a systematic review. JAMA. 2013;310(5):507–518. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.107799CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Makwana, N. Disaster and its impact on mental health: a narrative review. J Family Med Primary Care. 2019;8(10):3090–3095. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_893_19CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. SAMHSA/CSAT treatment improvement protocols. In: Trauma-Informed Care in Behavioral Health Services. 2014. Rockville, MD, USA. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).Google Scholar
Reifels, L, Mills, K, Dückers, MLA, et al. Psychiatric epidemiology and disaster exposure in Australia. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2019;28(3):310–320. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796017000531CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coleman, N, Liu, C, Zhao, Y, et al. Lifestyle pattern analysis unveils recovery trajectories of communities impacted by disasters. arXiv preprint arXiv:2207.03589. 2022. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2207.03589CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hackbarth, M, Pavkov, T, Wetchler, J, et al. Natural disasters: an assessment of family resiliency following Hurricane Katrina. J Marital Fam Ther. 2012;38(2):340–351. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2011.00227.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larry, L. Family types and family dimensions: The paradigmatic framework and the circumplex model. J Fam Theory Rev. 2024;15 July. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12573Google Scholar
Kwon, TY Psychosocial factors affecting the quality of life of disaster victims: focusing on the differences between single-person and multi-person households. J Korean Date Anal Soc. 2024;26(3):959–973. https://doi.org/10.37727/jkdas.2024.26.3.959CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, EY, Choi, SH, Lee, H. Development and evaluation of a screening scale for indirect trauma caused by media exposure to social disasters. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020698Google ScholarPubMed
Neria, Y, Sullivan, GM. Understanding the mental health effects of indirect exposure to mass trauma through the media. JAMA. 2011;306(12):1374–1375. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2011.1358CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhu, XL, Wen, Z, Yu, WB. Effects of media exposure on PTSD symptoms in college students during the COVID-19 outbreak. Front Public Health. 2023;11:1050759. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1050759CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sohn, SH. Study of indirect trauma and related variables by social traumatic event to the adolescence: focusing on the Sewol Ferry Disaster. Korean Journal of Youth Studies. 2014;21(10):269–294. https://kiss.kstudy.com/Detail/Ar?key=3278335Google Scholar
Shalev, AY, Freedman, S, Peri, T, et al. Prospective study of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following trauma. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155(5):630–637. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.155.5.630CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaesmer, H, Sierau, S, Bottche, M. Die Konsequenzen traumatischer Erfahrungen. Trauma Gewalt. 2020;4:266–276. https://doi.org/10.21706/tg-14-4-266CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, Y, Tsutsumi, A, Izutsu, T, et al. Persistent distress after psychological exposure to the Nagasaki atomic bomb explosion. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;199(5):411–416. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.085472CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spitzer, RL, Kroenke, K, Williams, JBW, et al. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006; 166(10):1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seo, JG, Park, SP. Validation of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) and GAD-2 in patients with migraine. J Headache Pain. 2015;16(1):97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10194-015-0583-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroenke, K, Spitzer, RL, Williams, JBW. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16(9): 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, SJ, Choi, HR, Choi, JH, et al. Reliability and validity of the Korean version of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Anxiety Mood. 2010;6(2):119–124. https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001493301Google Scholar
Eun, HJ, Kwon, TW, Lee, SM, et al. A study on reliability and validity of the Korean version of impact of event scale-revised. J Korean Neuropsychiatr Assoc. 2005;44(3):303–310. https://www.koreamed.org/SearchBasic.php?RID=2341077Google Scholar
Weiss, DS, Marmar, CR. The Impact of event scale-revised. In: Wilson, JP, Keane, TM, eds. Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD. New York: Guilford Press;1997.Google Scholar
Goldberg, DP. The Detection of Psychiatric Illness by Questionnaire: A Technique for the Identification and Assessment of Non-psychotic Psychiatric Illness. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 1972.Google Scholar
Shin, SI. The validity and reliability of the Korean Version of the General Health Questionnaire. Korean J Soc Welf. 2001;46:210–235. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07238254Google Scholar
Lim, YJ, Ko, YG, Shin, HC, et al. Psychometric evaluation of the Mental Health Continuum- Short Form (MHC-SF) in South Koreans. Korean J Psychol: General. 2012;31(2):369–386. https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001669258Google Scholar
Stevens, J, Shireman, E, Steinley, D, et al. Item responses in quantity–frequency questionnaires: implications for data generalizability. Assessment. 2020;27(5):1029–1044. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119858398CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, HS, Kim, JH. Analysis of food consumption behavior due to COVID-19: focusing on MZ generation. J Digit Convergence. 2021;19(3):47–54. https://www.earticle.net/Article/A391833Google Scholar
Galea, S, Vlahov, D, Resnick, H, et al. Trends of probable post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Am J Epidemiology. 2003;158(6):514–524. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg187CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fetzner, MG, McMillan, KA, Sareen, J, et al. What is the association between traumatic life events and alcohol abuse/dependence in people with and without PTSD?: findings from a nationally representative sample. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(8):632–638. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20852CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guliyev, C, Kalkan, Ö,Tekin, K, et al. Comparison of individuals with andwithout the risk of post-traumatic stress disorder in terms of substance use features and psychological problems according to their substance. Alpha Psychiatry. 2021;22(3):153–158. https://doi.org/10.5455/apd.14413Google Scholar
Gallup, Korea. Assessment of government response to 10.29 Itaewon disaster, primary responsibility, fear of crowd crush, likelihood of incident, and willingness to pay respects at victims’ memorials. Korea Gallup Daily Opinion, 519. Published November 10, 2022. https://www.gallup.co.kr/gallupdb/reportContent.asp?seqNo=1338Google Scholar
Bombardier, CH, Temkin, NR, Machamer, J, et al. The natural history of drinking and alcohol-related problems after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;84(2):185–191. https://doi.org/10.1053/apmr.2003.50002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McFarlane, AC. Epidemiological evidence about the relationship between PTSD and alcohol abuse: the nature of the association. Addict Behav. 1998;23(6):813–825. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4603(98)00098-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, Y, Wang, F, Wen, J, et al. Risk factors of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after Wenchuan earthquake: a case control study. PLoS One. 2014;9(5):e96644. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096644CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Georgieva, I, Lepping, P, Bozev, V, et al. Prevalence, new incidence, course, and risk factors of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and panic disorder during the Covid-19 pandemic in 11 countries. Healthcare (Basel). 2021;9(6):664. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare9060664CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodward, MJ, EddingerJ, Henschel AV, et al. Social support, posttraumatic cognitions, and PTSD: the influence of family, friends, and a close other in an interpersonal and non-interpersonal trauma group. J Anxiety Disord. 2015;35:60–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.09.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barsade, SG. The ripple effect: emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Admin Sci Q. 2002;47(4):644–675. https://doi.org/10.2307/3094912CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heo, SY. Longitudinal analyses on contagion of depression of married elderly couples in Korea. Korean J Gerontol Soc Welf. 2020;75(2):189–215. https://doi.org/10.21194/kjgsw.75.2.202006.189Google Scholar
DeRoma, V, Saylor, C, Swickert, R, et al. College students’ PTSD symptoms, coping, and perceived benefits following media exposure to 9/11. J College studt Psychotherapy. 2003;18(1):49–64. https://doi.org/10.1300/J035v18n01_05CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, HP, Choi, YK, Lee, JH, et al. The psychological consequences of indirect trauma exposure through the news on the Sewol ferry disaster. Korean J Culture So Issues. 2016;22(3):411–430. G704-000654.2016.22.3.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ji, JG, Hwang, KR. A study on the post-traumatic stress disorder of the bereaved families of subway conflagration in Daegu. Korean East West Mind Sci Assoc. 2008; 11(1):97–112. https://kiss.kstudy.com/Detail/Ar?key=2986444Google Scholar
Park, HM. The trauma of the Pohang earthquake. Proceedings of the Sociological Congress of the Korean Sociological Association. 2018;56–70. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07584804Google Scholar
Seo, HJ, Lee, OC. Mediating role of post-traumatic stress disorder in post-traumatic growth in adults who experienced the 2017 Pohang earthquake. J Affect Disorder. 2020;263:246–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.162CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inoue, Y, Stickley, A, Yazawa, A, et al. Adverse childhood experiences, exposure to a natural disaster and posttraumatic stress disorder among survivors of the 2011 great East Japan earthquake and tsunami. Epidemiol and Psychiatr Sci. 2019;28(1):45–53. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796017000233CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lim, HS, Sim, K. The effects of life changes on post-traumatic stress disorder after disasters. Korean J Stress Res. 2018;26(4):319–326. https://doi.org/10.17547/kjsr.2018.26.4.319CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, HM. The trauma of the Pohang earthquake. Korean J of Sci. 2018:56–70. http://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07584804Google Scholar
Chung, C, Chung, C, Man, YE. Traumatic stress and death anxiety among community residents exposed to an aircraft crash. Death Stud. 2000; 24(8):689–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/074811800750036578Google Scholar
World Health Organization (WHO) Global Influenza Programme & World Health Organization Pandemic influenza preparedness and response : a WHO guidance document. World Health Organization. 2009. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44123Google Scholar