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Resistance and Struggles

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2024

Oruno D. Lara
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For three decades, studies of the African slave trade and the system of slavery have proliferated. Conferences have been held one after another: in Copenhagen (1974), New York (1978), Port-au-Prince (1978), Washington, Harvard University (1979), Manchester (1982), Nantes (1985), Madrid (1988), Paris, Port-au-Prince, Saint-Louis, Dakar (all in 1989), Nantes (1993), and Nouakchott (1995). Numerous specialists from universities in Africa, Europe, the Caribbean and the Americas (Brazil, the United States, and Canada) have convened to compare the results of their research. Year after year, archival records have been brought to bear and the bibliography has grown ever longer. A number of studies of oral tradition have been undertaken in Africa.

Type
Research Article
Information
Diogenes , Volume 45 , Issue 179 , September 1997 , pp. 187 - 208
Copyright
Copyright © 1997 Fédération Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie / International Federation of Philosophical Societies (FISP)

References

Notes

1. See Table ronde sur les origines de Kong (Université Nationale de Côte-d'Ivoire, IHAAA, 1977).

2. Jean Mettas, La Traite des Noirs par l'Atlantique: nouvelles approches (Paris, 1976), p. 22.

3. After Mettas, some authors were content to reel off statistics, names, and ton nage figures for ships leaving Europe and crossing the Atlantic with their cargo of “ebony wood.” Of course we must take into account the numbers of slave ships that left French, English, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish ports from the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries. To this long list must be added the departures of armed ships for trade in Brazil, the Caribbean and North America.

4. Mbaye Guéye, L'Afrique et l'esclavage: une étude sur la traite négrière (Paris, 1983).

5. Ibid., p. 56.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid., p. 83.

8. And upon what history are we to base our research on resistance to the black slave trade? An example could be the history of Africa as approached by Mbaye Guéye, Boubacar Barry, Christophe Wondji, Yoro K. Fall, Walter Rod ney, and Oruno D. Lara in “Résistance et esclavage: de I'Afrique aux Amériques noires,” in La traite négrière du XVe au XIXe siècle, Histoire générale de l'Afrique, Etudes et documents 2 (Paris, 1979).

9. Diogo Gomes, De prima inventione Guiné.

10. See Oruno D. Lara, “Traite négrière et résistance africaine,” (Paris, 1975).

11. Oruno D. Lara, De l'Atlantique à l'aire des Caraïbes: nègres cimarrons et révoltes d'esclaves, XVIe - XVIIe siècles, vol. 2 (Doctoral thesis in history, Université Paris VII, 1971), p. 247.

12. David Birmingham, “Traditions, Migrations and Cannibalism: An Entertain ment on the Problems of Historical Evidence” (unpublished paper presented to the History Seminar, University of East Africa, Dar Es-Salaam, 1971); and Joseph C. Miller, “Requiem for the ‘Jaga',” in Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 49, vol. XIII (1973), pp. 121-149.

13. Padre J. A. Cavazzi de Montecuccolo, Descrição Histórica dos treis Reinos do Congo, Matamba e Angola, vol. I (Lisbon, 1965).

14. Oruno D. Lara, “Resistance to Slavery: From Africa to Black America,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 292 (1977), pp. 464-480.

15. Padre Antonio Brasio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, vol. III (document dated 1583), p. 248.

16. On arrival in the Caribbean, once sold, the African captive (Negro commod ity) became a negro slave. He was no longer a part of the slave trade but entered the system of slavery and the colonial system.

17. Lucien Peytraud, L'esclavage aux Antilles françaises avant 1789, p. 109.

18. Jean Mettas, La Traite des Noirs par l'Atlantique, (see note 2 above), p. 41.

19. Lucien Peytraud, L'esclavage aux Antilles françaises avant 1789, pp. 109-110.

20. Arquivo Nacional de Torre de Tombo, Lisbon, c. II, pp. 181, 78.

21. Paris, Archives Nationales, Marine 4 JJ 66, 4 JJ 69.

22. Johannes Menne Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1600 - 1815 (Cambridge, 1990), p. 167; and L. R. Priester, “De Nederlandse houding ten aanzien van de slavenhandel en slavernij, 1596-1863” (M.A. Thesis, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, 1986), p. 120.

23. Jean Mettas, Répertoire des expéditions négrières françaises au XVIIIe siècle, I. Nantes; II. Ports autres que Nantes (Paris, 1978, 1984); and Serge Daget, Réper toire des expéditions négrières françaises à la traite illégale (1814 - 1850) (Centre de recherche sur l'histoire du monde atlantique, Université de Nantes, 1988).

24. See the revolts described by the two above-cited authors, who are only two of the many sources on the subject.

25. J. M. Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, p. 165.

26. Ibid., pp. 166-167; and L. R. Priester, “De Nederlandse houding,” p. 165.

27. Théophile Conneau, A Slaver's Logbook: or 20 Years' Residence in Africa. The Original [1853] Manuscript (London, 1976), pp. 208-210.

28. See Oruno D. Lara, Caraïbes en construction: espace, colonisation, résistance, 2 vols. (Epinay, France, 1992); and Nelly Schmidt, L'engrenage de la liberté. Caraïbes — XIXe siècle. (l'Université de Provence, 1995).

29. Emmanuel Maugat, “La révolte des Noirs du ‘Regina-Coeli,'” in Cahiers des Salorges 18 (Nantes, Musée des Salorges).

30. Walter Rodney, A History of the Upper Guinea Coast, 1545 to 1800 (Oxford, 1970), p. 109.

31. Mbaye Guéye, L'Afrique et l'esclavage, p. 61.

32. M. Goulart, Escravidão Africana no Brasil, 2d ed. (São Paulo), p. 95.

33. Oruno D. Lara, De l'Atlantique à l'aire des Caraïbes: nègres cimarrons et révoltes d'esclaves, XVIe - XVIIe siècles, vol. 4, p. 950 and vol. 2, p. 346.

34. Ibid., p. 363.

35. See Oruno D. Lara, Caraïbes en construction, vol. I, pp. 303 ff.; and Oruno D. Lara, “Guerres des Karib et Cimarrons aux Caraïbes,” paper delivered at the conference “La Guerre folle” (The Madness of War), (Collège de France, Labo ratoire d'anthropologie sociale, September 1997).

36. See preceding note.

37. Oruno D. Lara, “Le soulèvement de 1791 et ses répercussions dans la Méditer ranée des Caraïbes,” in Jahrbuch für Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas, 28, 1991.

38. Oruno D. Lara, Caraïbes en construction.

39. Ibid. and “Guerres des Karib et Cimarrons aux Caralbes.”

40. Oruno D. Lara, “Le soulèvement de 1791 et ses répercussions”; and Oruno D. Lara, “La place de Simon Bolivar dans le procès de destruction du système esclavagiste aux Caraïbes,” in Cahiers des Amériques, “Bolivar et son temps” (Paris, 1984).

41. Miguel Angel Rosal, “Negros y pardos en Buenos Aires, 1811-1860,” in Anuario de Estudios Americanos, LI, I, 1994, Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, Sevilla, España.

42. Miguel Angel Rosal, “Negros y pardos en Buenos Aires,” p. 181.

43. The abolition of slavery came late to Cuba (1886) as it did to Brazil (1888).

44. See Oruno D. Lara, Lutte armée à Cuba, 1868 - 1898 (Institut Caraibe de Recherches Internationales en Sciences Humaines et Sociales [ICRISHS, Guadeloupe], 1979); and Oruno D. Lara, Caraïbes en construction.

45. See Inez Fischer-Blanchet, “Troubles paysans en Guadeloupe en 1848: l'affaire Sénécal,” in Cimarrons, I (Guadeloupe/Paris, 1981). See also Oruno D. Lara, Les Caraïbes no. 2267 (Paris, 1986; 2d. ed., 1997).

46. Wolfgang Sofsky, The Order of Terror: The Concentration Camp, trans. William Templer (Princeton, 1997).

47. “Note à M. le Baron V. P. Malouet,” Cap Henry, 1814. See also Oruno D. Lara, Caraïbes en construction, vol. I, pp. 286-287.

48. Oruno D. Lara, Caraïbes en construction, pp. 287-288. This work may be con sulted for a more in-depth analysis of the movements of insurrection and resistance among slaves in the Caribbean islands and continent from the sev enteenth to the nineteenth century.