¹ "The relationship between statistics and investigation-study at the pre sent stage of socialism in our country is basically different from that in the capi talist countries. The scientific character of our statistics has been built on the foundation of Marxist-Leninist scientific theories and on the foundation of Com rade Mao Tse-tung's ideas of investigation and study. Naturally, in our statistical work there is yet evidence of non-conformity with Comrade Mao's ideas, and this calls for exerting ourselves 100-fold to study and raise the standard of our theoreti cal and practical work of statistics. Those who unduly emphasise the distinction between statistics and investigation-study, overstress the peculiarities of statistics or even stand statistics in opposition to investigation-study are all in the wrong. The reason is that they may, on the pretext that statistical work is of a special character, basically refute Comrade Mao Tse-tung's ideas on investigation-study and refuse to implement them in our statistical work. We should and must, in the course of our statistical work, give effect to Comrade Mao's ideas on investigation-study, which consist of Party leadership, proceeding from reality and requirements, seeking truth from facts, the class viewpoint, the mass viewpoint, methods of analysing contradictions and investigation into typical cases. Only thus can sta tistical work be successfully carried out and can the theoretical and research work as well as practical work of statistics be pushed forward to a new peak." (Pro fessor Li Tzu-Ch'iang, of the Hopei Institute of Finance and Economics, Kuan ming-Jih-pao 24 July 1961.) So far as any meaning can be extracted from the appalling verbiage, it appears to be that Chinese statistics must mean what Mao Tse-tung requires them to mean. In Soviet Russia there have been some attempts to distort or suppress statistical information. But the Soviet statisticians have a long tradition of statistical expertise behind them, and also are more aware that the figures which they publish may be subject to criticism and checking in the outside world. Not so the Chinese. They publish whatever figure appears useful at the time, however false it may be. After all, in Communist doctrine, objective truth is a " Bourgeois concept." Consequently any checking of their figures by outside statisticians causes them greater embarrassment.

² I am indebted to Dr. K. Walker of London University for these references.

³ Quoted in A. F. Whyte, China and Foreign Powers (London, 1927).

⁴ The best modern summaries of this interesting information are to be found in Ping-ti Ho, Studies on the Population of China 1368-1953, Harvard University Press, 1959; Durand, Population Studies, March 1960; Usher, Geographical Re view, January 1930.

⁵ J. L. Buck, Land Utilisation in China.

⁶ One of the most interesting and (to the economist) most convincing pieces of evidence of the extent of bandit infestation is the fact that during the 1930's, when the country was nominally at peace, nevertheless in every part of the country the selling prices of agricultural land were low. This result, so contrary to what might have been expected in a densely populated country, could not be explained by the fear of taxes and arbitrary exactions of all sorts which the local war-lords imposed, and which made exploitation of the land hardly profitable. Many landowners of those days in fact left the villages, and made their homes in the fortified towns, collecting only such rents as circumstances permitted. There are interesting parallels to this state of affairs in some of the more turbulent centuries in our own past history.

⁷ American Economic Review, May 1961.

⁸ The table and diagram also appear in The China Quarterly, January 1965, where full details of the calculations are also given.