Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T16:03:17.987Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Adaptation and Self-Organization in Primate Societies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2024

Bernard Thierry
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The primary method by which science endeavors to order the world is the analytic approach, consistent with Cartesian principles of dividing the problem in as many sections as required for an optimal solution, and progressing from the simplest to the most complex reasoning. When the interactions among the various elements of the system being studied are minimal, such a procedure indeed makes it possible to formulate laws that describe chains of causality. However, when the variables are interdependent and linked by non-linear equations, the atomistic method cannot account for the phenomenon in its entirety. Spurred by this inadequacy, scientists sought to discover synthetic methods which, early in the twentieth century, led to the conceptualization of holistic theories in a number of disciplines. The most highly developed fields are the psychology of form, structural anthropology (1), and the various systems theories (2). More recently, the development of epigenetic concepts in biology has corresponded to the appearance of different theories of pattern in physics and mathematics (3, 4) and to the progressive emergence of the concept of self-organization (5, 6, 7). The objective is to explain the production of complex structures on the basis of interacting elements, none of which contains a guiding scheme that dictates these structures. In biology, the challenge is to locate the constraints that are expressed in a space of possibilities (8) in order to develop a theory of organization that is capable of predicting the finite number of forms that living creatures can assume (9). This school of thought can be described as structuralist, emergentist, self-organizational, or epigeneticist, depending on the theoretical version that is emphasized.

Type
Research Article
Information
Diogenes , Volume 45 , Issue 180 , December 1997 , pp. 39 - 71
Copyright
Copyright © 1997 Fédération Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie / International Federation of Philosophical Societies (FISP)

Footnotes

*

Numbers in parentheses refer to bibliographic citations at the end of the article.

References

Bibliographic Citations

Lévi-Strauss, C., Anthropologie structurale (Paris, 1958).Google Scholar
Bertalanffy, L. von, General Systems Theory (New York, 1968).Google Scholar
Thom, R., Stabilité structurelle et morphogenèse, 2d ed. (Paris,1984).Google Scholar
Gleick, J., Chaos (New York, 1987).Google Scholar
Foerster, H. Von and Zopf, G. W., eds., Principles of Organization (NewYork, 1962).Google Scholar
Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I., Self-Organization in Non-equilibrium Systems (New York, 1977).Google Scholar
Dumouchel, P. and Dupuy, J.P., L'auto-organisation (Paris, 1983).Google Scholar
Ashby, W.R., “Principles of the self-organizing system,” in Foerster, H. Von and Zopf, G. W., eds., Principles of organization (New York, 1962), pp. 255–278.Google Scholar
Wake, D. and Larson, A., “Multidimensional analysis of an evolving lineage,” Science 238 1987, pp. 42–48.Google ScholarPubMed
Foucault, M., Les mots et les choses (Paris, 1966).Google Scholar
Cuvier, G., Rapport historique sur les progrès des sciences naturelles depuis 1789 et sur leur état actuel (Paris, 1865).Google Scholar
Webster, G. and Goodwin, B.C., “The origin of species: a structuralist approach,” Journal of Social and Biological Structures 6 (1982), pp. 15–47.Google Scholar
Vtrup, S.L., Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth (London, 1987).Google Scholar
Lauder, G.V., “Historical Biology and the Problem of Design,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 97 (1982), pp. 57–67.Google ScholarPubMed
Hughes, A.J. and Lambert, D.M., “Functionalism, Structuralism, and Ways of Seeing,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 111 (1984), pp. 787–800.Google Scholar
Ho, M.W. and Saunders, P.T., “Beyond Neo-Darwinism. An Epigenetic Approach to Evolution,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 78 (1979), pp. 573–591.Google ScholarPubMed
Gould, S.J. and Lewontin, R., “The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 205 (1979), pp. 581–598.Google Scholar
Gould, S.J., Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977).Google Scholar
Oppenheim, R.W., “Preformation and Epigenesis in the Origins of the Nervous System and Behavior: Issues, Concepts, and Their History,” in Bateson and Klopfer, eds., Perspectives in Ethology, vol. 5, pp.1–100.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G., Individual Development and Evolution (New York, 1992).Google Scholar
Vavilov, N.I., “The Law of Homologous Series in Variation,” Journal of Genetics 15 (1922), pp. 125–142.Google Scholar
D'Arcy Thompson, W., On Growth and Form (New York, 1942).Google Scholar
Waddington, C.H., The Strategy of the Genes (London, 1957).Google Scholar
Seilacher, A., “Arbeitskonzept zur Konstruktionsmorphologie,” Lethaia 3, (1970), pp. 393–396.Google Scholar
Gould, S.J. and Eldredge, N., “Punctuated Equilibria: The Tempo and Mode of Evolution Reconsidered,” Paleobiology 3 (1977), pp. 115–151.Google Scholar
Alberch, P., “Ontogenesis and Morphological Diversification,” American Zoologist 20 (1980), pp. 653–667.Google Scholar
Smith, J. Maynard, Burian, R., Kauffman, S., Alberch, P., Campbell, J., Goodwin, B., Lande, R., Ramp, D., and Wolpert, L., “Developmental Constraints and Evolution,” Quarterly Review of Biology 6 (1985), pp. 265–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kauffman, S.A., The Origins of Order (Oxford, 1993).Google Scholar
Lewontin, R.C., The Genetic Basis of Evolutionary Change (New York, 1974).Google Scholar
Lewontin, R.C., “Sociobiology as an Adaptationist Program,” Behavioral Science 24 (1979), pp. 5–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorenz, K., Uber tierisches und rnenschliches Verhalten (Munich, 1965).Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N., The Study of Instinct (Oxford, 1951).Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N., Social Behavior in Animals (London, 1953).Google Scholar
Wilson, E.O., Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1975).Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G., “Introduction to Behavioral Embryology,” in, Gottlieb, G., ed., Behavioral Embryology (New York, 1973), pp. 3–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, P.P.G., “Rules and Reciprocity in Behavioural Development,” in P. P. G. Bateson and R. A. Hinde, eds., Growing Points in Ethology (Cambridge, 1976), pp. 401–424.Google Scholar
Hailman, J.P., “Ontogeny: Towards A General Theoretical Framework for Ethology,” in Bateson and Klopfer, eds., Perspectives in Ethology, vol. 5, pp. 133–189.Google Scholar
Hailman, J.P., “Evolution and Behavior: An Iconoclastic View,” in H. C. Plarn, ed., Learning, Development and Culture (New York, 1982), pp. 205–254.Google Scholar
Oyama, S., “A Reformulation of the Idea of Maturation,” in Bateson and Klopfer, eds., Perspectives in Ethology, vol. 5 (New York, 1982), pp. 101–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, K., “Does the Holistic Study of Behavior Have a Future,” in P. P. G. Bateson and P. H. Klopfer, eds., Perspectives in Ethology, Vol. 1 (New York, 1973), pp. 281–328.Google Scholar
Rothstein, S.I., “Successes and Failures in Avian Egg and Nestling recognition with Comments on the Utility of Optimality Reasoning,” American Zoologist 22 (1982), pp. 547–560.Google Scholar
Vancassel, M., “Plasticity and adaptive radiation of dermapteran parental behavior: results and perspectives,” Advances in the Study of Behavior 14 (1984), pp. 51–80.Google Scholar
Jamieson, I.G., “The functional approach to behavior: is it useful?”, American Naturalist 127 (1986), pp. 195–208.Google Scholar
Jamieson, I.G., “Behavioral heterochrony and the evolution of birds' helping at the nest: an unselected consequence of communal breeding,” American Naturalist 133 (1989), pp. 394–406.Google Scholar
Crespi, B.J., “Adaptation, Compromise, and Constraint: the development, morphometrics, and behavioral basis of a fighter-flier polymorphism in male Hoplothrips karnyi (Insecta: Thysanoptera),” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobio logy 23 (1988), pp. 93–104.Google Scholar
Irwin, R.E., “The evolutionary importance of behavioural development: the ontogeny and phylogeny of bird song,” Animal Behaviour 36 (1988), pp. 814–824.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumberg, M.S. and Alberts, J., “Functions and effects in animal communication reactions to Guilford and Dawkins,” Animal Behaviour 44, 1992, pp. 382–383.Google Scholar
Deneubourg, J.L. and Goss, S., “Collective patterns and decision-making,” Ethology, Ecology and Evolution 1 (1989), pp. 295–311.Google Scholar
Seeley, T.D., The Wisdom of the Hive (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1995).Google Scholar
Theraulaz, G. and Spitz, F., eds., Auto-organisation et comportement (Paris, 1997).Google Scholar
Tinbergen, N., “On aims and methods of ethology,” Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 20 (1963), pp. 410–433.Google Scholar
Mayr, E., “Cause and effect in biology,” Science 134 (1961), pp. 1501–1506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, P.W., “The levels of analysis,” Animal Behaviour 36 (1988), pp. 616–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, G.C., Adaptation and Natural Selection (Princeton, 1966).Google Scholar
Kummer, H., Primate Societies (Chicago, 1971).Google Scholar
Deag, J.M., “The adaptive significance of baboon and macaque social behaviour,” in Ebling, F. J. and Stoddart, D. M., eds., Population Control by Social Behaviour (London, Institute of Biology, 1978), pp. 83–113.Google Scholar
Quiatt, D., “Aunts and mothers: adaptive implications of allomaternal behavior of nonhuman primates,” American Anthropologist 81 (1979), pp. 310.Google Scholar
Rowell, T.E., “How would we know if social organization were not adaptive?”, in Bernstein, I. S. and Smith, E. O., eds., Primate Ecology and Human Origins (New York, 1979), pp. 1–22.Google Scholar
Richard, A.F., “Changing assumptions in primate ecology,” American Anthropologist 83 (1981), pp. 517–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernstein, I.S., “The evolution of nonhuman primate social behavior, Genetica 73 (1987), pp. 99–116.Google ScholarPubMed
Gould, S.J. and Vrba, E.S., “Exaptation. a missing term in the science of form,” Paleobiology 8 (1982), pp. 4–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Noordwijk, M.A., “Sexual behaviour of Sumatran long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis),“ Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 70 (1985), pp. 277–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallis, J. and Lemmon, W.B., “Social behavior and genital swelling in pregnant chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),” American Journal of Primatology 10 (1986), pp. 171–183.Google ScholarPubMed
Wison, M.E., Gordon, T.P., and Collins, D.C., “Serum 17-estradiol and progesterone associated with mating behavior during early pregnancy in female rhesus monkeys,” Hormones and Behavior 16 (1982), pp. 94–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erhart, E.M., Coelho, A.M., and Bramblett, C.A., “Kin recognition by paternal half-siblings in captive Papio cynocephalus,” American Journal of Primatology 43 (1997), pp. 147–157.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ratnayeke, S.M. and Dittus, W.P.J., “Individual and social behavioral responses to injury in wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica),” International Journal of Primatology 10 (1989), pp. 215–233.Google Scholar
Bercovitch, F.B., “Coalitions, cooperation and reproductive tactics among adult male baboons,” Animal Behaviour 36 (1988), pp. 1198–1209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noë, R., “A Veto Game played by baboons: a challenge to the use of the Prisoner's Dilemna as a paradigm for reciprocity and cooperation,” Animal Behaviour 39 (1990), pp. 78–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemelrijk, C.K., “Reciprocation in apes: from complex cognition to selfstructuring,” in McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., and Nishida, T., eds., Great Apes Societies (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1996), pp. 185–195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodman, P.S. and Mitani, J.C., “Orangutans: sexual dimorphism in a solitary species,” in Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W., and Struhsaker, T. T., eds., Primate Societies (Chicago, 1987), pp. 146–154.Google Scholar
Crawford, C.R. and Galdikas, B.M., “Rape in non-human animals: an evolutionary perspective,” Canadian Psychology 27 (1986), pp. 215–230.Google Scholar
Smuts, B.B., Sex and Friendship in Baboons (New York, 1985).Google Scholar
Nadler, R.D., “Sexual aggression in the great apes,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 528 (1988), pp. 154–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaitl, E.A., “Nature and implications of the complexly organized social system in nonhuman primates,” in Chivers, D. J. and Herbert, J., eds., Recent Advances in Primatology, vol. 1 (London, 1978), pp. 17–30.Google Scholar
Rédican, W.M., “Adult male-infant interactions in nonhuman primates,” in M. E. Lamb, ed., The Role of the Father in Child Development (New York, 1976), pp. 345–385.Google Scholar
Vasey, P.L., “Homosexual behavior in primates: a review of evidence and theory,” International Journal of Primatology 16 (1995), pp. 173–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, L.D., “Japanese macaque female sexual behavior: a comparison of Arashiyama East and West,” in M. F. Small, ed., Female Primates: Studies by Women Primatologists (New York, 1984), pp. 141–157.Google Scholar
F. B. M. de Waal, “Do rhesus mothers suggest friends to their offspring?”, Primates 31 (1990), pp. 597–600.Google Scholar
McMillan, C.A., “Lineage-specific mating: does it exist?” in Rawlins, R. G. and Kessler, M. J., eds., The Cayo Santiago Macaques (Albany,1986), pp. 201–217.Google Scholar
Van Schaik, C.P. and Paul, A., “Male care in primates: does it ever reflect paternity,” Evolutionary Anthropology 5 (1996), pp. 152–156.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manson, J.H., “Mating patterns, mate choice, and birth season heterosexual relationships in free-ranging rhesus macaques,” Primates 35 (1994), pp. 417–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, A., Kuester, J., and Arnemann, J., “The sociobiology of male-infant interactions in Barbary macaques, Macaca sylvanus,” Animal Behaviour 51 (1996), pp. 155–170.Google Scholar
Ehardt, C.L., “Birth season contingencies and the affiliative behavior of adult male Japanese macaques,” in Fedigan, L. M. and Asquith, P. J., eds., The Monkeys of Arashiyama, (Albany, 1991), pp. 227–248.Google Scholar
Tardif, S.D. and Bales, K., “Is infant-carrying a courtship strategy in callitrichid primates?”, Animal Behaviour 53 (1997), pp. 1001–1007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snodown, C.T., “Mechanisms maintaining monogamy in monkeys,” in Dewsbury, D. A., ed., Contemporary Issues in Comparative Psychology (Sunderland, Massachusetts, 1990), pp. 225–251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, P.C., “Patterns of paternal care in primates,” International Journal of Primatology 11 (1990), pp. 89–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tardif, S.D., “Relative energetic cost of infant care in small-bodied neotropical primates and its relation to infant-care patterns,” American Journal of Primatology 34 (1994), pp. 133–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, I.W. and Ehardt, C., “The influence of kinship and socialization on aggressive behaviour in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta),” Animal Behaviour 34 (1986), pp. 734–747.Google Scholar
Vick, L.G. and Pereira, M.E., “Episodic targeting aggression and the histories of Lemur social groups,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 25 (1992), pp. 3–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sussman, R.W., “Male life history and intergroup mobility among ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta),” International Journal of Physical Anthropology 13 (1992), pp. 396–413.Google Scholar
Kaufman, R., “The nature and frequency of agonism in free-ranging brown lemurs, Eulemur fulvus,” Primates 37 (1996), pp. 335–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thierry, B., Stéru, L., Charmat, R., and Simon, P., “Searching-waiting strategy: a candidate for an evolutionary model of depression?”, Behavioral and Neural Biology 41 (1984), pp. 180–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenblum, L.A. and Plimpton, E.H., “The infant's effort to cope with separation,” in Lewis, M. and Rosenblum, L. A., eds., The Uncommon Child (New York, 1981), pp. 225–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonabeau, E. and Theraulaz, G., eds., Intelligence collective (Paris, 1994).Google Scholar
Trivers, R.L., “Parental investment and sexual selection,” in Campbell, B., ed., Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man 1871-1971 (Chicago, 1972), pp. 136–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hrdy, S.B., “Male-male competition and infanticide among the langurs (Presbytis entellus) of Abu, Rajasthan,” Folia Primatologica 22 (1974), pp. 19–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hrdy, S.B., Janson, C., and Van, C.P. Schaik, “Infanticide: let's not throw out the baby with the bath water,” Evolutionary Anthropology 3 (1995), pp.161–154.Google Scholar
Bartlett, T.Q., Sussman, R.W., and Cheverud, J.M., “Infant killing in primates: a review of observed cases with specific reference to the sexual selection hypothesis,” American Anthropologist 95 (1993), pp. 958–990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, M., “Cannibalism among non-human primates,” in Elgar, M., ed., Cannibalum: Ecology and Evolution among Diverse Taxa (Oxford, 1992), pp. 323–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudran, R., “Adult male replacement in one male troop of purple-faced langurs (Presbytis senex senex) and its effect on population structure,” Folia Primatologica 19 (1973), pp. 166–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boggess, J., “Troop male membership changes and infant killing in langurs (Presbytis entellus),” Folia Primatologica 32 (1979), pp. 65–107.Google ScholarPubMed
Hrdy, S.B., “Care and exploitation of nonhuman primates by conspecifics other than the mother,” Advances in the Study of Behavior 6 (1976), pp. 101–158.Google Scholar
Thierry, B. and Anderson, J.R., “Adoption in anthropoid primates,” Inter national Journd of Primatology 7 (1986), pp. 191–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sommer, V., “Infant mistreatment in langur monkeys: Sociobiology tackled from the wrong end?”, in Rasa, A. E., Vogel, C., and Voland, E., eds., The Sociobiology of Sexual and Reproductive Strategies (London, 1989), pp. 110–127.Google Scholar
Maestripieri, D., “Social structure, infant handling, and mothering styles in group-living Old World monkeys,” International Journal of Primatology 15 (1976), pp. 531–553.Google Scholar
Stanford, C.B., “Costs and benefits of allomothering in wild capped langurs (Presbytis pileata),” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 30 (1992), pp. 29–34.Google Scholar
Fairbanks, L.A., “Reciprocal benefits of allomothering for female vervet monkeys,” Animal Behaviour 40 (1990), pp. 553–562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemeyer, C.L. and Anderson, J.R., “Primate harassment of matings,” Ethology and Sociobiology 4 (1983), pp. 205–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thierry, B., “Affiliative interference in mounts in a group of Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana),” American Journal of Primatology 11 (1986), pp. 89–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thierry, B., “Feedback loop between kinship and dominance: the macaque model,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 145 (1990), pp. 611–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKenna, J.J., “The evolution of allomothering among colobine monkeys: function and opportunism in evolution,” American Anthropologist 81 (1979), pp. 818–840.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hrdy, S.B., “'Nepotists' and 'altruists': the behavior of old females among macaques and langur monkeys,” in Amoss, P. T. and Harreli, S., eds., Other Ways Of Growing Old (Stanford, 1981), pp. 59–76.Google Scholar
Fairbanks, L.A., “Vervet monkey grandmothers: interactions with infant grandoffspring,” International Journal of Primatology 9 (1988), pp. 425–441.Google Scholar
McDonald Pavelka, M. S., “Do old female monkeys have a specific social role?”, Primates 31 (1990), pp. 363–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takahata, Y., Koyama, N., and Suzuki, S., “Do the old aged females experience a long post-reproductive life span?: the cases of Japanese macaques and chimpanzees,” Primates 36 (1995), pp.169–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thierry, B., “Social transmission, tradition and culture in primates: from the epiphenomenon to the phenomenon,” Techniques et Cultures 23/24 (1994), pp. 91–119.Google Scholar
Guille-Escuret, G., Le decalage humain (Paris, 1994).Google Scholar
Thierry, B., “De la relation entre le développement des facultés d'attribution et les prémices de l'évolution culturelle chez les primates,” in Philosophie de l'action et neurosciences, Petit, J. L., ed. (Paris, 1997), pp. 243–258.Google Scholar
Mayr, E., Animal species and Evolution (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunbar, R.I.M.. Primate social systems. London, 1988.Google Scholar
Smith, J. Maynard, “Optimization theory in evolution,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 9 (1978), pp. 31–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, G.J. and Ollason, J.G., “Eight reasons why optimal foraging theory is a complete waste of time,” Oikos 49 (1987), pp. 111–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Darlington, P.J., “The cost of evolution and the imprecision of adaptation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 74 (1977), pp. 1647–1651.Google Scholar
Gans, C., “Adaptation and the form-function relation,” American Zoologist 28 (1988), pp. 681–697.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R.W., “An ecological model of female-bonded primate groups,” Behaviour 75 (1980), pp. 262–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terborgh, J. and Janson, C.H., “The socioecology of primate groups,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 17 (1986), pp. 111–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Schaik, C. P., “The ecology of social relationships amongst female primates,” in Comparative Socioecology: The Behavioral Ecology of Humans and Other Mammals, Standen, V and Foley, R. A., eds. Oxford, 1989, pp.195–218.Google Scholar
Alexander, R.D., “The evolution of social behavior,” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5 (1974), pp. 325–383.Google Scholar
Hausfater, G. and Watson, D.F., “Social and reproductive correlates of parasite ova emissions by baboons,” Nature 262 (1976), pp. 688–689.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, C.R., Ayres, J.M., Dye, C., and Deane, L.M., “Malaria infection rate of Amazonian primates increases with body weight and group size,” Functional Ecology 5 (1991), pp. 655–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuart, M.D. and Strier, K.B., “Primates and parasites: a case for multidisciplinary approach,” International Journal of Primatology 16 (1995), pp. 577–593.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muller-Graf, C.D.M., Collins, D.A., and Woolhouse, M.E.J., “Intestinal parasite burden in five troops of olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania,” Parasitology 112 (1996), pp. 489–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerche, N.W., “Endemic type D retrovirus infection as a potential regulator of age-structured breeding populations of captive macaques,” American Journal of Primatology 36 (1995), pp. 138.Google Scholar
Menzel, E.W., “A group of young chimpanzees in a one-acre field,” in Behavior of Non-Human Primates, vol. 5, Schrier, A. M. and Stollnitz, F., eds. (New York, 1974), pp. 83–153.Google Scholar
Sigg, H. and Stolba, A., “Home range and daily march in a Hamadryas baboon troop,” Folia Primatologica 36 (1981), pp. 40–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, B.S., The Information Continuum (Santa Fe, 1994).Google Scholar
Drapier, M., Ducoing, A.M., and Thierry, B., “Information transfer in Tonkean macaques at a foraging task: an experimental study of collective performance” (submitted for publication).Google Scholar
Kinzey, W.G. and Cunningham, E.P., “Variability in platyrrhine social organization,” American Journal of Primatology 34 (1994), pp. 185–198.Google ScholarPubMed
Thierry, B., “Emergence of social organizations in non-human primates,” Revue Internationale de Systémique 8 (1994), pp. 65–77.Google Scholar
Nishida, T., “The social structure of chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains,” in The Great Apes, Hamburg, D. A. and McCown, E. R., eds. (Menlo Park, California,1979), pp. 73–121.Google Scholar
Goodall, J.. The Chimpanzees of Gombe. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1986.Google Scholar
van Schaik, C. P. and van Noordwijk, M. A., “The special role of male Cebus monkeys in predation avoidance and its effect on group composition,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 24 (1989), pp. 265–276.Google Scholar
Caine, N.E. and Marra, S.L., “Vigilance and social organization in two species of primates,” Animal Behaviour 36 (1988), pp. 391–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alberts, S.C., “Vigilance in young baboons: effects of habitat, age, sex and maternal rank on glance rate,” Animal Behaviour 47 (1994), pp. 749–755.Google Scholar
Baldelou, M. and Henzi, P., “Vigilance, predator detection and the presence of supernumerary males in vervet monkey troops,” Animal Behaviour 43 (1992), pp. 451–461.Google Scholar
Janson, C.H., “Ecological consequences of individual spatial choice in foraging groups of brown capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella,” Animal Behaviour 40 (1990), pp. 922–934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wasser, S.K. and Starling, A.K., “Proximate and ultimate causes of reproductive suppression among female yellow baboons at Mikumi National Park, Tanzania,” American Journal of Primatology 16 (1988), pp. 97–121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seyfarth, R.M., “Social relationships among adult female baboons,” Animal Behaviour 24 (1976), pp. 917–938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trivers, R.L. and Willard, D.E., “Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex ratio of offspring,” Science 179 (1975), pp. 90–92.Google Scholar
Silk, J.B., “Local resource competition and facultative adjustment of sex ratios in relation to competitive abilities,” American Naturalist 121 (1983), pp. 56–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhine, R.J., “Estimating reproductive success of primates and other animals with long and incompletely known reproductive life spans,” American Journal of Primatology 27 (1992), pp. 245–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Schaik, C. P. and Hrdy, S.B., “Intensity of local resource competition shapes the relationship between maternal rank and sex ratios at birth in cercopithecine primates,” American Naturalist 138 (1991), pp. 1555–1562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kummer, H., “Rules of dyad and group formation among captive gelada baboons (Theropithecus gelada),” in Proceedings of the Fifth Congress of the International Primatological Society, S. Kondo, M. Kawai, A. Ehara, and S. Kawamura, eds. (Tokyo, 1975), pp. 129–159.Google Scholar
Hinde, R.A., “Interactions, relationships and social structure,” Man 11 (1976), pp. 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seyfarth, R.M., “A model of social grooming among adult female monkeys,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 65 (1977), pp. 671–692.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinde, R. A., ed., Primate Social Relationships (Oxford, 1983), p. 4.Google Scholar
van Schaik, C. P. and van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M., “On the ultimate causes of primate social systems,” Behaviour 85 (1983), pp. 91–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rowell, T.E., “Reification of social systems,” Evolutionary Anthropology 2 (1993), pp. 135–137.Google Scholar
I, J.A. te Boekhorst and Hogeweg, P., “Self-structuring in artificial 'chimps' offers new hypotheses for male grouping in chimpanzees,” Behaviour 130 (1994), pp. 231–252.Google Scholar
Hemelrijk, C.K., “Cooperation without genes, games or cognition,” in Fourth European Conference on Artificial Life. P. Husbands and I. Harvey, eds. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1997), pp. 511–520.Google Scholar
Datta, S.B., “Demographic influences on dominance structure among female primates,” in Standen, V. and Foley, R. A., eds., Comparative socioecology. (Oxford, 1989), pp. 265–284.Google Scholar
Paul, A. and Kuester, J., “Dominance, kinship and reproductive value in female Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) at Affenberg Salem,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 21 (1987), pp. 323–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
F, B.M. de Waal and Luttress, L.M., “Toward a comparative socioecology of the genus Macaca: different dominance styles in rhesus and stumptail monkeys,” American Journal of Primatology 19 (1989), pp. 83–103.Google Scholar
Thierr, B., Petit, O., and Abegg, C., “Des états attracteurs dans l'organisation sociale des macaques,” in Auto-organisation et comportement, Theraulaz, G. and Spitz, F., eds. (Paris, 1997), pp. 187–200.Google Scholar
Aureli, F., Das, M., and Veenema, H.C., “Differential kinship effect on reconciliation in three species of macaques (Macaca fascicularis, M. fuscata, and M. sylvanus),” Journal of Comparative Psychology 111 (1997), pp. 91–99.Google ScholarPubMed
Thierry, B., Aureli, F., de Waal, F. B. M., and Petit, O., “Variations in reconciliation patterns and social organization across nine species of macaques,” Communication at the 25th International Ethological Conference (Vienna, 1997).Google Scholar
Ehardt, C.L., “Absence of strongly kin-preferential behavior by adult female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys),” American Journal of Primatology 76 (1988), pp. 233–243.Google ScholarPubMed
Rowell, T.E., Wilson, C., and Cords, M., “Reciprocity and partner preference in grooming of female blue monkeys,” International Journal of Primatology 12 (1991), pp. 319–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strier, K.B., “Myth of the typical primate,” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 37 (1994), pp. 233–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Small, M.F., “Promiscuity in Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus),” American Journal of Primatology 20 (1990), pp. 267–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oi, T., “Sexual behaviour and mating system of the wild pig-tailed macaque in West Sumatra,” in Fa, J. E. and Lindburg, D. G., eds., Evolution and Ecology of Macaque Societies (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 342–368.Google Scholar
Thierry, B., Heistermann, M., Aujard, F., and Hodges, J.K., “Long-term data on basic reproductive parameters and evaluation of endocrine, morphological and behavioral measures for monitoring reproductive status in a group of semifree-ranging Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana),” American Journal of Primatology 39 (1996), pp. 47–62.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, A., “Breeding seasonality affects the association between dominance and reproductive success in non-human primates,” Folia Primatologica 68 (1997), pp. 344–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bercovitch, F.B., “Social stratification, social strategies, and reproductive success in primates,” Ethology and Sociobiology 12 (1991), pp. 315–333.Google Scholar
Shively, C., “The evolution of dominance hierarchies in nonhuman primates,” in Power, Dominance, and Nonverbal Behavior, Ellyson, S. L. and Doviodo, J. F., eds. (New York, 1985), pp. 67–87.Google Scholar
Cheney, D.L., Lee, P.C., and Seyfarth, R.M., “Behavioral correlates of nonrandom mortality among free-ranging female vervet monkeys,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 9 (1981), pp. 153–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Packer, C., Colins, D.A., Sindimwo, A., and Goodall, J., “Reproductive constraints on aggressive competition in female baboons,” Nature 373 (1995), pp. 60–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bercovitch, F.B. and Berard, J.D., “Life history costs and consequences of rapid reproductive maturation in female rhesus macaques,” Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 32 (1993), pp. 103–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pusey, A., Williams, J., and Goodall, J., “The influence of dominance rank on the reproductive success of female chimpanzees,” Science 277 (1997), pp. 828–831.Google ScholarPubMed
Dunbar, R.I.M., “Social systems as optimal strategy sets: the costs and benefits of sociality,” in Comparative Socioecology, Standen, V and Foley, R. A., eds. (Oxford, 1989), pp.131–149.Google Scholar
Oyama, S., The Ontogeny of Information, Cambridge, 1985.Google Scholar
Brown, L., Shumaker, R.W., and Downhower, J.F., “Do primates experience sperm competition,” The American Naturalist 146 (1995), pp. 302–306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothstein, S.J., “Reciprocal altruism and kin selection are not clearly separable phenomena,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 87 (1980), pp. 255–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, W.A., “Ontogeny of social systems,” in Recent Advances in Primatology, vol. 1, Chivers, D. J. and Herbert, J., eds. (London, 1978), pp. 5–14.Google Scholar
Mendoza, S.P. and Mason, W.A., “Primate relationships: social dispositions and physiological responses,” in Perspectives in Primate Biology, vol. 2, Seth, P. K. and Seth, S., eds. (New Delhi, 1989), pp. 129–143.Google Scholar
Lorr, D.F., Intraspecific Variation in the Social Systems of Wild Vertebrates (Cambridge, 1991).Google Scholar
Altmann, S.A. and Altmann, J., “Demographic constraints on behavior and social organization,” in Primate Ecology and Human Origins, Bernstein, I. S. and Smith, E. O., eds. (New York, 1979), pp. 47–63.Google Scholar
Atchley, W.R. and Newman, S., “A quantitative-genetics perspective on mammalian development,” American Naturalist 134 (1989), pp. 486–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, M. and Lande, R., “The evolution of maternal characters,” Evolution 43 (1989), pp. 485–503.Google ScholarPubMed
Jablonka, E., “Inheritance systems and the evolution of new levels of individuality,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 170 (1994), pp. 301–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
F. B. M. de Waal, “Macaque social culture: development and perpetuation of affiliative networks,” Journal of Comparative Psychology 110 (1996), pp. 147–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevenson-Hinde, J., “Individual characteristics of mothers and their infants,” in Primate Social Relationships, Hinde, R. A., ed. (Oxford, 1983), pp. 122–127.Google Scholar
Berman, C.M., “Intergenerational transmission of maternal rejection rates among free-ranging rhesus monkeys,” Anirnal Behaviour 39 (1990), pp. 329–337.Google Scholar
F, B.M. de Waal and Johanowicz, D.L., “Modification of reconciliation behavior through social experience: an experiment with two macaque species,” Child Development 64 (1993), pp. 897–908.Google Scholar
Odling-Smee, F.J., “Niche-constructing phenotypes,” in The Role of Behavior in Evolution, Plotkin, H. C., ed. (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1988), pp. 73–132.Google Scholar
F. B. M. de Waal, “The integration of dominance and social bonding in primates,” Quarterly Review of Biology 61 (1986), pp. 459–479.Google Scholar
Melnick, D.J., “The genetic consequences of primate social organization: a review of macaques, baboons and vervet monkeys,” Genetica 73 (1987), pp. 117–135.Google ScholarPubMed
Rowell, T.E., “Beyond the one-male group,” Behaviour 104 (1988), pp. 189–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gagneux, P., Woodruff, D.S., and Boesch, C., “Furtive mating in female chimpanzees,” Science 387 (1997), pp. 358–359.Google ScholarPubMed
Sober, E., The Nature of Selection (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1984).Google Scholar
Eldredge, N., The Unfinished Synthesis (Oxford, 1985).Google Scholar