Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T21:26:18.925Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Stress reactivity and social cognition in pure and co-occurring early childhood relational bullying and victimization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 August 2021

Gretchen R. Perhamus Open the ORCID record for Gretchen R. Perhamus [Opens in a new window] ,
Kristin J. Perry Open the ORCID record for Kristin J. Perry [Opens in a new window] ,
Dianna Murray-Close  and
Jamie M. Ostrov
Gretchen R. Perhamus*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, USA
Kristin J. Perry
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, USA
Dianna Murray-Close
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, USA
Jamie M. Ostrov
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Gretchen R. Perhamus, 478 Park Hall, Department of Psychology, Buffalo, NY14260; E-mail [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study tested the independent effects and interactions of sympathetic nervous system reactivity and hostile attribution biases (HAB) in predicting change in pure and co-occurring relational bullying and victimization experiences over one year. Co-occurring and pure relational bullying and victimization experiences were measured using a dimensional bifactor model, aiming to address methodological limitations of categorical approaches, using data from 300 preschoolers (Mage = 44.70 months, SD = 4.38). Factor scores were then saved and used in nested path analyses with a subset of participants (n = 81) to test main study hypotheses regarding effects of HAB and skin conductance level reactivity (SCL-R). Bifactor models provided good fit to the data at two independent time points. HAB and SCL-R interacted to predict increases in co-occurring relational bullying/victimization with evidence for over- and underarousal pathways.

Keywords

autonomic nervous systemearly childhoodhostile attribution biasrelational bullyingrelational victimization
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 34 , Issue 4 , October 2022 , pp. 1300 - 1312
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Armstrong, T., Wells, J., Boisvert, D. L., Lewis, R., Cooke, E. M., Woeckener, M., & Kavish, N. (2019). Skin conductance, heart rate and aggressive behavior type. Biological Psychology, 141, 44–51. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.12.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blakely-McClure, S. J., & Ostrov, J. M. (2018). Examining co-occurring and pure relational and physical victimization in early childhood. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 166, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.07.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonifay, W., Lane, S. P., & Reise, S. P. (2017). Three concerns with applying a bifactor modelas structure of psychopathology. Clinical Psychological Science, 5, 184–186. doi:10.1177/2167702616657069CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornovalova, M., Choate, A. M., Fatimah, H., Petersen, K. J., & Wiernik, B. M. (2020). Appropriate use of bifactor analysis in psychopathology research: Appreciating benefits and limitations. Biological Psychiatry, 88(1), 18–27. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.01.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosworth, K., Espelage, D. L., & Simon, T. R. (1999). Factors associated with bullying behavior in middle school students. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 341–362. doi:10.1177/0272431699019003003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., & Johnson, S. L. (2015). Over-lapping verbal, relational, physical, and electronic forms of bullying in adolescence: Influence of school context. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 44, 494–508. doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.893516CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brain-Body Center. (2007). Cardioedit/CardioBatch [computer software]. Chicago: University of Illinois.Google Scholar
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Burt, K. B., & Obradović, J. (2013). The construct of psychophysiological reactivity: Statistical and psychometric issues. Developmental Review, 33, 29–57. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2012.10.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2004). Cardiac vagal regulation across the preschool period: Stability, continuity, and implications for childhood adjustment. Developmental Psychobiology, 45, 101–112. doi:10.1002/dev.20020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casas, J. F., & Bower, A. A. (2018). Developmental manifestations of relational aggression. In Coyne, S. M. & Ostrov, J. M. (Eds.), The development of relational aggression (pp. 29–48). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casas, J. F., & Crick, N. R. (1999). Assessment of preschool social information processing (APSIP). Unpublished manual, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Causadias, J. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2018). Cultural development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 30, 1549–1555. doi:10.1017/S0954579418001220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, F., Bollen, K. A., Paxton, P., Curran, P. J., & Kirby, J. B. (2001). Improper solutions in structural equation models. Sociological Methods & Research, 29, 468–508. doi:10.1177/0049124101029004003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, F. F., Hayes, A., Carver, C. S., Laurenceau, J., & Zhang, Z. (2012). Modeling general and specific variance in multifaceted constructs: A comparison of the bifactor model to other approaches. Journal of Personality, 80, 219–251. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00739.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25, 65–83. doi:10.1037/a0020149CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R. (1995). Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, feelings of distress, and provocation type. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 313–322. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006520CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R., Casas, J. F., & Ku, H. (1999). Relational and physical forms of peer victimization in preschool. Developmental Psychology, 35, 376–385. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.35.2.376CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Filion, D. L. (2007). The electrodermal system. In Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. G. (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed., pp. 159–181). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 54–68. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3301_6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gazelle, H., & Ladd, G. W. (2002). Interventions for children victimized by peers. In Schewe, P. A. (Ed.), Preventing violence in relationships: Interventions across the life span (pp. 55–78). American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10455-003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gladden, R. M., Vivolo-Kantor, A. M., Hamburger, M. E., & Lumpkin, C. D. (2014). Bullying surveillance among youths: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements, version 1.0. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and U.S. Department of Education.Google Scholar
Godleski, S. A., Kamper, K. E., Ostrov, J. M., Hart, E. J., & Blakely-McClure, S. J. (2015). Peer victimization and peer rejection during early childhood. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 44, 380–392. doi:10.1080/15374416.2014.940622CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godleski, S. A., & Ostrov, J. M. (2020). Parental influences on child report of relational attribution biases during early childhood. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 192, 104775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104775CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gower, A. L., & Crick, N. R. (2011). Baseline autonomic nervous system arousal and physical and relational aggression in preschool: The moderating role of effortful control. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 81, 142–151. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.06.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregson, K. D., Tu, K. M., & Erath, S. A. (2014). Sweating under pressure: Skin conductance level reactivity moderates the association between peer victimization and externalizing behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 22–30. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12086CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffin, R. S., & Gross, A. M. (2004). Childhood bullying: Current empirical findings and future directions for research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 379–400. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(03)00033-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawley, P. H. (1999). The ontogenesis of social dominance: A strategy-based evolutionary perspective. Developmental Review, 19, 97–132. doi:10.1006/drev.1998.0470CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynie, D. L., Nansel, T., Eitel, P., Crump, A. D., Saylor, K., Yu, K., & Simons-Morton, B. (2001). Bullies, victims, and bully/victims: Distinct groups of at-risk youth. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 29–49. doi:10.1177/0272431601021001002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hollingshead, A. A. (1975). Four-factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University, New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Hong, J. S., & Espelage, D. L. (2012). A review of research on bullying and peer victimization in school: An ecological system analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 311–312. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.03.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hubbard, J. A., Romano, L. J., McAuliffe, M. D., & Morrow, M. T. (2010). Anger and the reactive–proactive aggression distinction in childhood and adolescence. In Potegal, M., Stemmler, G. & Spielberger, C. (Eds.), International handbook of anger. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89676-2_14Google Scholar
Hymel, S., & Swearer, S. M. (2015). Four decades of research on school bullying: An introduction. American Psychologist, 70, 293–299. doi:10.1037/a0038928CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iffland, B., Sansen, L. M., Catani, C., & Neuner, F. (2014). The trauma of peer abuse: Effects of relational peer victimization and social anxiety disorder on physiological and affective reactions to social exclusion. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 5, 26. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00026CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kliewer, W., Dibble, A. E., Goodman, K. L., & Sullivan, T. N. (2012). Physiological correlates of peer victimization and aggression in African American urban adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 637–650. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000211CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar
Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., Ladd, G. W., & Kochel, K. P. (2009). A child and environment framework for studying risk for peer victimization. In Harris, M. J. (Ed.), Bullying, rejection, and peer victimization: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective (pp. 27–53). New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Lafko, N., Murray-Close, D., & Shoulberg, E. K. (2015). Negative peer status and relational victimization in children and adolescents: The role of stress physiology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 44, 405–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambe, L. J., Craig, W. M., & Hollenstein, T. (2019). Blunted physiological stress reactivity among youth with a history of bullying and victimization: Links to depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 1981–1993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00565-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lemerise, E. A., & Arsenio, W. F. (2000). An integrated model of emotion processes and cognition in social information processing. Child Development, 71, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00124CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, C. (2016). Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data: Comparing robust maximum likelihood and diagonally weighted least squares. Behavior Research Methods, 48, 936–949. doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0619-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, T. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Little, T. D., Rhemtulla, M., Gibson, K., & Schoemann, A. M. (2013). Why the items versus parcels controversy needn't be one. Psychological Methods, 18, 285–300. doi:10.1037/a0033266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1, 130–149. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, H. W., Lüdtke, O., Nagengast, B., Morin, A. J. S., & Von Davier, M. (2013). Why item parcels are (almost) never appropriate: Two wrongs do not make a right–camouflaging misspecification with item parcels in CFA models. Psychological Methods, 18, 257–284. doi:10.1037/a0032773CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, H. W., Nagengast, B., Morin, A. J., Parada, R. H., Craven, R. G., & Hamilton, L. R. (2011). Construct validity of the multidimensional structure of bullying and victimization: An application of exploratory structural equation modeling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 701–732. doi:10.1037/a0024122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McQuade, J. D., Murray-Close, D., Breslend, N. L., Balda, K. E., Kim, M. M., & Marsh, N. P. (2019). Emotional underarousal and overarousal and engagement in relational aggression: Interactions between relational victimization, physiological reactivity, and emotional sensitivity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 1663–1676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00544-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray-Close, D., Breslend, N. L., & Holterman, L. A. (2018). Psychophysiology indicators of relational aggression. Developmental manifestations of relational aggression. In Coyne, S. M., & Ostrov, J. M. (Eds.), The development of relational aggression (pp. 127–151). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2020). Mplus (version 8.4) [computer software]. Los Angeles, CA: Author.Google Scholar
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what can we do. Maiden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar
Orobio de Castro, B., Veerman, J. W., Koops, W., Bosch, J. D., & Monshouwer, H. J. (2002). Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 73, 916–934. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostrov, J. M., & Crick, N. R. (2007). Forms and functions of aggression during early childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. School Psychology Review, 36, 22–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrov, J. M., Godleski, S. A., Kamper-DeMarco, K. E., Blakely- McClure, S. J., & Celenza, L. (2015). Replication and extension of the early childhood friendship project: Effects on physical and relational bullying. School Psychology Review, 44, 445–463. doi:10.17105/spr-15-0048.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrov, J. M., Kamper-DeMarco, K. E., Blakely-McClure, S. M., Perry, K. J., & Mutignani, L. (2019). Prospective associations between aggression/bullying and adjustment in preschool: Is general aggression different from bullying behavior? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 2572–2585. doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1055-yCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrov, J. M., & Kamper, K. E. (2015). Future directions for research on the development of relational and physical peer victimization. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 44, 509–519. doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1012723CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ostrov, J. M., Murray-Close, D., Blakely-McClure, S. J., Perry, K. J., Mutignani, L. M., Probst, S., … Bresland, N. (2018, June). The Development of Forms and Functions of Aggression: Preliminary Findings From the PEERS Project. Paper Presented at the 7th Research Conference on Relational Aggression. Philadelphia, PA.Google Scholar
Pepler, D., Jiang, D., Craig, W., & Connolly, J. (2008). Developmental trajectories of bullying and associated factors. Child Development, 79, 325–338. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01128.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perhamus, G. R., & Ostrov, J. M. (2021). Emotions and cognitions in early childhood aggression: The role of irritability and hostile attribution biases. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 49, 63–75. doi:10.1007/s10802-020-00707-7Google ScholarPubMed
Perry, D. G., Hodges, E. V. E., & Egan, S. K. (2001). Determinants of chronic victimization by peers: A review and a new model of family influence. In Juvonen, J., & Graham, S. (Eds.), Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized (pp. 73–104). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Perry, K. J., Meisel, S. N., Stotsky, M. T., & Ostrov, J. M. (2020). Parsing apart affective dimensions of withdrawal: Longitudinal relations with peer victimization. Development and Psychopathology, 1–13. Advance online publication. doi:10.1017/S0954579420000346Google Scholar
Perry, K. J., & Ostrov, J. M. (2018). Testing a bifactor model of relational and physical aggression in early childhood. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 40, 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-017-9623-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitula, C. E., Murray-Close, D., Banny, A. M., & Crick, N. R. (2015). Prospective associations between peer aggression and victimization: The moderating roles of physiological stress reactivity and gender. Social Development, 24, 621–639. doi:10.1111/sode.12110CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porges, S. W. (1985). U.S. Patent no. 4,510,944. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.Google Scholar
Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74, 116–143. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2006.06.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W., & Bohrer, R. E. (1990). The analysis of periodic processes in psychophysiological research. In Cacioppo, J. T., & Tassinary, L. G. (Eds.), Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements (pp. 708–753). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interaction effects in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448. doi:10.3102/10769986031004437CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prinstein, M. J., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2003). Forms and functions of adolescent peer aggression associated with high levels of peer status. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49, 310–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prinstein, M. J., & Giletta, M. (2020). Future directions in peer relations research. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 49, 556–572. doi:10.1080/153744116.2020.1756299CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhemtulla, M. (2016). Population performance of SEM parceling measurement and structural model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 21, 348–368. doi:10.1037/met0000072CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodkin, P. C., Espelage, D. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2015). A relational framework for understanding bullying: Developmental antecedents and outcomes. American Psychologist, 70, 311–321. doi:10.1037/a0038658CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodriguez, A., Reise, S. P., & Haviland, M. G. (2016). Evaluating bifactor models: Calculating and interpreting statistical indices. Psychological Methods, 21, 137–150. doi:10.1037/met0000045CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, A. J., & Swenson, L. P. (2009). Do perceived popular adolescents who aggress against others experience emotional adjustment problems themselves? Developmental Psychology, 45, 868–872. doi:10.1037/a0015408CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roseth, C. J., Pellegrini, A. D., Dupuis, D. N., Bohn, C. M., Hickey, M. C., Hilk, C. L., & Peshkam, A. (2011). Preschoolers’ bistrategic resource control, reconciliation, and peer regard. Social Development, 20, 185–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2010.00579.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., Troop-Gordon, W., & Granger, D. A. (2010). Peer victimization and aggression: Moderation by individual differences in salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 843–856. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9412-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2010). Ensuring positiveness of the scaled difference chi-square test statistic. Psychometrika, 75, 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-009-9135-yGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1997). The early socialization of aggressive victims of bullying. Child Development, 68, 665–675. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04228.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sijtsema, J. J., Shoulberg, E. K., & Murray-Close, D. (2011). Physiological reactivity and different forms of aggression in girls: Moderating roles of rejection sensitivity and peer rejection. Biological Psychology, 86, 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.11.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skrondal, A., & Laake, P. (2001). Regression among factor scores. Psychometrika, 66, 563–575. doi:10.1007/BF02296196CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (2013). The promise of developmental psychopathology: Past and present. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1215–1224. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000576CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2502_4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tackett, J. L., Daoud, S. L., De Bolle, M., & Burt, S. A. (2013). Is relational aggression part of the externalizing spectrum? A bifactor model of youth antisocial behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 39, 149–159. doi:10.1002/ab.21466CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ungvary, S., McDonald, K. L., Gibson, C. E., Glenn, A. L., & Reijntjes, A. (2018). Victimized by peers and aggressive: The moderating role of physiological arousal and reactivity. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 64, 70–100. doi:10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.64.1.0070CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Census Bureau (2019). Demographic Characteristics, Buffalo-Cheektowaga, NY Metro Area, American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g=310M500US15380&tid=ACSDP5Y2019.DP05Google Scholar
Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Oldehinkel, A. J., De Winter, A. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2005). Bullying and victimization in elementary schools: A comparison of bullies, victims, bully/victims, and uninvolved preadolescents. Developmental Psychology, 41, 672–682. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.4.672CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woods, S., & White, E. (2005). The association between bullying behaviour, arousal levels, and behaviour problems. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 381–395. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.09.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, A. G. C., & Hallquist, M. N. (2014). Mixture modeling methods for the assessment of normal and abnormal personality, part II: Longitudinal models. Journal of PersonalityAssessment, 96, 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.830262Google ScholarPubMed
Ybarra, M. L., Espelage, D. L., & Mitchell, K. J. (2014). Differentiating youth who are bullied from other victims of peer- aggression: The importance of differential power and repetition. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 55, 293–300. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.02.00FigureCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Perhamus et al. supplementary material

Perhamus et al. supplementary material

Download Perhamus et al. supplementary material(File)
File 21.5 KB