Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T19:03:50.850Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Representations of the caregiver–child relationship and of the self, and emotion regulation in the narratives of young children whose mothers have borderline personality disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

Jenny Macfie  and
Scott A. Swan
Jenny Macfie*
Affiliation:
University of Tennessee at Knoxville
Scott A. Swan
Affiliation:
University of Tennessee at Knoxville
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Jenny Macfie, 301E Austin Peay, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0900; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) represents a severe distortion in the development of attachment, self, and emotion regulation. Study of children at high risk of developing BPD may inform precursors to BPD. In a low socioeconomic status sample of 30 children aged 4–7 whose mothers have BPD and 30 normative comparisons, representations of the caregiver–child relationship and of the self, and emotion regulation were assessed with a story-stem completion measure. In contrast to comparisons and controlling for major depressive disorder, children whose mothers have BPD told stories with the following: (a) more parent–child role reversal, more fear of abandonment, and more negative mother–child and father–child relationship expectations; (b) more incongruent and shameful representations of the self; and (c) poorer emotion regulation indicated by more confusion of boundaries between fantasy and reality and between self and fantasy, more fantasy proneness, less narrative coherence, and marginally more intrusion of traumatic themes. In the sample as a whole, (a) a maladaptive caregiver–child relationship composite was associated with maternal identity disturbance and self-harm; (b) a maladaptive self-composite was associated with maternal self-harm; and (c) a maladaptive emotion regulation composite was associated with maternal identity disturbance, negative relationships, and self-harm. Results are discussed in terms of putative precursors to BPD and preventive interventions.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 3: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 1 , August 2009 , pp. 993 - 1011
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, G., & Buie, D. (1979). Aloneness and borderline psychopathology: The possible relevance of child development issues. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 60, 83–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y., Fox, N. A., VanMeenen, K. M., & Marshall, P. J. (2004). Children's narratives and patterns of cardiac reactivity. Developmental Psychobiology, 44, 238–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnow, S., Spitzer, C., Grabe, H. J., Kessler, C., & Freyberger, H. J. (2006). Individual characteristics, familial experience, and psychopathology in children of mothers with borderline personality disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 65, 965–972.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (1999). Effectiveness of partial hospitalization in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: A randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1563–1569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2001). Treatment of borderline personality disorder with psychoanalytically oriented partial hospitalization: An 18-month follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 36–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateman, A., & Fonagy, P. (2008). 8-Year follow-up of patients treated for borderline personality disorder: Mentalization-based treatment versus treatment as usual. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 631–638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belden, A., Sullivan, J. P., & Luby, J. L. (2007). Depressed and healthy preschoolers' internal representations of their mothers' caregiving: Associations with observed caregiving behaviors one year later. Attachment and Human Development, 9, 239–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bezirganian, S., Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (1993). The impact of mother–child interaction on the development of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1836–1842.Google ScholarPubMed
Bickham, N., & Fiese, B. (1999). Child Narrative Coding System. Unpublished manuscript, Syracuse University.Google Scholar
Bower, G. H., & Sivers, H. (1998). Cognitive impact of traumatic events. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 625–654.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss. Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bradley, R., & Westen, D. (2005). The psychodynamics of borderline personality disorder: A view from developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 927–957.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. A. (2008). Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bretherton, I., Oppenheim, D., Buchsbaum, H., Emde, R. N., & The MacArthur Narrative Group. (1990). MacArthur Story Stem Battery (MSSB). Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Bretherton, I., Ridgeway, D., & Cassidy, J. (1990). Assessing internal working models of the attachment relationship. In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years (pp. 273–308). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107–1128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (2004). The construction of experience: A longitudinal study of representations and behavior. Child Development, 75, 66–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1989). Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants' attachments to their caregivers. In Cicchetti, D. & Carlson, V. (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 494–528). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassidy, J. (1988). Child–mother attachment and the self in six-year-olds. Child Development, 59, 121–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. (1984). The emergence of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2002). Editorial. Prevention and intervention science: Contributions to developmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 667–672.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, R., & Toth, S. L. (2000). The efficacy of toddler–parent psychotherapy for fostering cognitive development in offspring of depressed mothers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 135–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1992). The role of developmental theory in prevention and intervention. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 489–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 53, 221–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2006). Developmental psychopathology and preventive intervention. In Renninger, K. A. & Sigel, I. E. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Rogosch, F. (1999). The efficacy of toddler–parent psychotherapy to increase attachment security in offspring of depressed mothers. Attachment and Human Development, 1, 34–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Education and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, P., Chen, H., Gordon, K., Johnson, J., Brook, J., & Kasen, S. (2008). Socioeconomic background and the developmental course of schizotypal and borderline personality disorder symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 633–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crandell, L. E., Patrick, M., & Hobson, R. P. (2003). “Still-face” interactions between mothers with borderline personality disorder and their 2-month-old infants. British Journal of Psychiatry, 183, 239–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R., Murray-Close, D., & Woods, K. (2005). Borderline personality features in childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1051–1070.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, W. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2007). Emotion and resilience: A multi-level investigation of hemispheric electroencephalogram asymmetry and emotion regulation in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 811–840.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downey, G., & Coyne, J. C. (1990). Children of depressed parents: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 50–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 845–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (3rd ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Egeland, B. R., Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L. A. (1988). Breaking the cycle of abuse. Child Development, 58, 1080–1088.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R. B., Zelkowitz, P., Weiss, M., Vogel, J., Heyman, M., & Paris, J. (1995). A comparison of the families of mothers with borderline and nonborderline personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 36, 157–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (1996). User's guide for the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders—Research version. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., & Benjamin, L. S. (1997). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II personality disorders: SCID-II. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.Google Scholar
Fonagy, P., Target, M., & Gergely, G. (2000). Attachment and borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23, 103–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fraiberg, S., Adelson, E., & Shapiro, V. (1975). Ghosts in the nursery. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 387–421.Google ScholarPubMed
Grant, B. F., Chou, S. P., Goldstein, R. B., Huang, B., Stinson, F. S., Saha, T. D., et al. (2008). Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV borderline personality disorder: Results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, 533–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, J., Stanley, C., & Peters, S. (2007). Disorganized attachment representation and atypical parenting in young school age children with externalizing disorder. Attachment and Human Development, 9, 207–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grych, J. H., Wachsmuth-Schlaefer, T., & Klockow, L. L. (2002). Interparental aggression and young children's representations of family relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 259–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunderson, J. G. (1996). The borderline patient's intolerance of aloneness: Insecure attachments and therapist availability. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 752–758.Google ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, J. G. (2001). Borderline personality disorder: A clinical guide. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Gunderson, J. G., Carpenter, W., & Strauss, J. (1975). Borderline and schizophrenic patients: A comparative study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 132, 1257–1264.Google ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, J. G., & Ridolfi, M. A. (2001). Borderline personality disorder: Suicidality and self-mutilation. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 932, 60–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heard, H. L., & Linehan, M. M. (1993). Problems of self and borderline personality disorder: A dialectical behavioral analysis. In Segal, Z. V. & Blatt, S. J. (Eds.), The self in emotional distress: Cognitive and psychodynamic perspectives (pp. 301–333). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Herman, J. L., Perry, J. C., & Kolk, B. A. v. d. (1989). Childhood trauma in borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 490–495.Google ScholarPubMed
Hesse, E., & Main, M. (2006). Frightened, threatening, and dissociative parental behavior in low-risk samples: Description, discussion, and interpretations. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 309–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J., Fonagy, P., Lancaster, G., & Broyden, N. (2007). Aggression and intentionality in narrative responses to conflict and distress story stems: An investigation of boys with disruptive behavior problems. Attachment and Human Development, 9, 223–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobson, R. P., Patrick, M., Crandell, L., Garcia-Perez, R., & Lee, A. (2005). Personal relatedness and attachment in infants of mothers with borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 329–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laporte, L., & Guttman, H. (1996). Traumatic childhood experiences as risk factors for borderline and other personality disorders. Journal of Personality Disorders, 10, 247–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., & Cicchetti, D. (2005). Toward a developmental psychopathology approach to borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 893–898.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, K. N., Meehan, K. B., Kelly, K. M., Reynoso, J. S., Weber, M., Clarkin, J. F., et al. (2006). Change in attachment patterns and reflective functioning in a randomized control trial of transference-focused psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1027–1040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, A. F. (1992). Infant–parent psychotherapy with toddlers. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 559–574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive–behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Linehan, M. M., & Heard, H. L. (1999). Borderline personality disorder: Costs, course, and treatment outcomes. In Miller, N. E. & Magruder, K. M. (Eds.), Cost-effectiveness of psychotherapy: A guide for practitioners, researchers, and policymakers (pp. 291–305). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Liotti, G., & Pasquini, P. (2000). Predictive factors for borderline personality disorder: Patients' early traumatic experiences and losses suffered by the attachment figure. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 282–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludolph, P. S., Westen, D., Misle, B., Jackson, A., Wixom, J., & Wiss, F. C. (1990). The borderline diagnosis in adolescents: Symptoms and developmental history. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 470–476.Google ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., Bronfman, E., & Atwood, G. (1999). A relational diathesis model of hostile–helpless states of mind. In Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 33–69). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Melnick, S., Patrick, M., & Hobson, R. P. (2007). A controlled study of hostile–helpless states of mind among borderline and dysthymic women. Attachment and Human Development, 9, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., Yellin, C., Melnick, S., & Atwood, G. (2005). Expanding the concept of unresolved mental states: Hostile/helpless states of mind on the Adult Attachment Interview are associated with disrupted mother–infant communication and infant disorganization. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacDonald, H. Z., Beeghly, M., Grant-Knight, W., Augustyn, M., Woods, R. W., Cabral, H., et al. (2008). Longitudinal association between infant disorganized attachment and childhood posttraumatic stress symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 493–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J. (2009). Development in children and adolescents whose mothers have borderline personality disorder. Child Development Perspectives, 3, 66–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2001). The development of dissociation in maltreated preschool-aged children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 233–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J., Fitzpatrick, K. L., Rivas, E. M., & Cox, M. J. (2008). Independent influences on mother–toddler role reversal: Infant–mother attachment disorganization and role reversal in mother's childhood. Attachment and Human Development, 10, 29–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J., Houts, R. M., McElwain, N. L., & Cox, M. J. (2005). The effect of father–toddler and mother–toddler role reversal on the development of behavior problems in kindergarten. Social Development, 14, 514–531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macfie, J., McElwain, N. L., Houts, R. M., & Cox, M. J. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of role reversal between parent and child: Dyadic and family systems internal working models. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 51–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J., Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Robinson, J. L., Emde, R. N., & Cicchetti, D. (1999). Effect of maltreatment on preschoolers' narrative representations of responses to relieve distress and of role reversal. Developmental Psychology, 35, 460–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents' unresolved traumatic experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening parental behavior the linking mechanism? In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 161–182). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. C. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50 (1–2, Serial No. 209), 66–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (Eds.). (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth strange situation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mednick, S. A., & McNeil, T. F. (1968). Current methodology in research on the etiology of schizophrenia: Serious difficulties which suggest the use of the high-risk-group method. Psychological Bulletin, 70, 681–693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mt. Hope Family Center. (1995). Mt. Hope Demographic Interview. Unpublished manuscript, University of Rochester.Google Scholar
Morey, L. C. (1991). Personality Assessment Inventory. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Newman, L. K., Stevenson, C. S., Bergman, L. R., & Boyce, P. (2007). Borderline personality disorder, mother–infant interaction and parenting perceptions: Preliminary findings. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 598–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J. T., & Goldsmith, H. H. (1994). Genetics of personality disorders: Perspectives from personality and psychopathology research. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 346–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nigg, J. T., Lohr, N. E., Westen, D., Gold, L. J., & Silk, K. R. (1992). Malevolent object representations in borderline personality disorder and major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 61–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogawa, J. R., Sroufe, L. A., Weinfield, N. S., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1997). Development and the fragmented self: A longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a normative sample. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 855–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oppenheim, D. (2006). Child, parent, and parent–child emotion narratives: Implications for developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 771–790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oppenheim, D., Emde, R. N., & Warren, S. L. (1997). Children's narrative representations of mothers: Their development and associations with child and mother adaptation. Child Development, 68, 127–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oppenheim, D., Nir, A., Warren, S. L., & Emde, R. N. (1997). Emotion regulation in mother–child narrative co-construction: Associations with children's narratives and adaptation. Developmental Psychology, 33, 284–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oppenheim, D., & Waters, H. (1995). Narrative processes and attachment representations: Issues of development and assessment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 60, 197–215.Google Scholar
Paris, J. (1993). Long-term outcome of borderline personality disorder: Implications for treatment. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 28–34.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., Vizueta, N., Thomas, K. M., Levy, K. N., Fossella, J., et al. (2003). An approach to the psychobiology of personality disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 1093–1106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, K. M., & Silk, K. R. (2005). Emotion dysregulation and the development of borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 899–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, J. L., Mantz-Simmons, L., Macfie, J., & the MacArthur Narrative Group. (1996). The narrative coding manual, Rochester version. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2005). Child maltreatment, attention networks, and potential precursors to borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1071–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roy, A. (2001). Consumers of mental health services. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 31, 60–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. J., & Chandler, M. J. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking caualty. In Horowitz, F. D. (Ed.), Review of child development research (Vol. 4, pp. 187–244). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Scarlett, W. G., & Wolf, D. (1979). When it's only make-believe: The construction of a boundary between fantasy and reality in storytelling. New Directions for Child Development, 6, 29–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schechter, D. S., Zygmunt, A., Coates, S. W., Davies, M., Trabka, K. A., McCaw, J., et al. (2007). Caregiver traumatization adversely impacts young children's mental representations on the MacArthur Story Stem Battery. Attachment and Human Development, 9, 187–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A., Ryan, R. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Narrative representations of caregivers and emotion dysregulation as predictors of maltreated children's rejection by peers. Developmental Psychology, 37, 321–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1647–1658.Google ScholarPubMed
Solomon, J., George, C., & DeJong, A. (1995). Children classified as controlling at age six: Evidence of disorganized strategies and aggression at home and at school. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 447–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaptation From Birth to Adulthood. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., & Rutter, M. (1984). The domain of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 17–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stadelmann, S., Perren, S., Wyl, A. v., & Klitzing, K. v. (2007). Associations between family relationships and symptoms/strengths at kindergarten age: What is the role of chlldren's parental representations? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 996–1004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, M. H. (1990). The fate of borderline patients. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Swartz, M., Blazer, D., George, L., & Winfield, I. (1990). Estimating the prevalence of borderline personality disorder in the community. Journal of Personality Disorders, 4, 257–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torgersen, S., Lygren, S., Oien, P. A., Skre, I., Onstad, S., Edvardsen, J., et al. (2000). A twin study of personality disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 416–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., Macfie, J., & Emde, R. N. (1997). Representations of self and other in the narratives of neglected, physically abused, and sexually abused preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 781–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., Macfie, J., Maughan, A., & VanMeenen, K. (2000). Narrative representations of caregivers and self in maltreated preschoolers. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 271–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., Macfie, J., Rogosch, F. A., & Maughan, A. (2000). Narrative representations of moral affiliative and conflctual themes and behavioral problems in maltreated preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 307–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Maughan, A., Manly, J. T., Spagnola, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). The relative efficacy of two interventions in altering maltreated preschool children's representational models: Implications for attachment. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 877–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2006). The efficacy of toddler–parent psychotherapy to reorganize attachment in the young offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder: A randomized preventive trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1006–1016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Sturge-Apple, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Maternal depression, children's attachment security, and representational development: An organizational perspective. Child Development, 80, 192–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
vonKlitzing, K., Stadelmann, S., & Perren, S. (2007). Story stem narratives of clinical and normal kindergarten children: Are content and performance associated with children's social competence? American Psychologist, 9, 271–286.Google Scholar
Warren, S. L., Emde, R. N., & Sroufe, L. A. (2000). Internal representations: Predicting anxiety from children's play narratives. Journal of the Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 100–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Warren, S. L., Mantz-Simmons, L., & Emde, R. N. (1993). Narrative emotion coding. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Warren, S. L., Oppenheim, D., & Emde, R. N. (1996). Can emotions and themes in children's play predict behavior problems? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1331–1337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, T. L., & Clum, G. A. (1993). Early family environments and traumatic experiences associated with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 1068–1075.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, M., Zelkowitz, P., Feldman, R. B., Vogel, J., Heyman, M., & Paris, J. (1996). Psychopathology in offspring of mothers with borderline personality disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 41, 285–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D., & Cohen, R. P. (1993). The self in borderline personality disorder: A psychodynamic perspective. In Segal, Z. V. & Blatt, S. J. (Eds.), The self in emotional distress; Cognitive and psychodynamic perspectives (pp. 334–368). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Winer, B. J., Brown, D. R., & Michels, K. M. (1991). Statistical principles in experimental design (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Yates, T. M. (2004). The developmental psychopathology of self-injurious behavior: Compensatory regulation in posttraumatic adaptation. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 35–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yates, T. M., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (2008). A prospective study of child maltreatment and self-injurious behavior in a community sample. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 651–671.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., Schmitz, S., Fulker, D., Robinson, J. L., & Emde, R. N. (1996). Behavior problems in 5-year-old monozygotic and dizygotic twins: Genetic and environmental influences, patterns of regulation, and internalization of control. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 103–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zanarini, M. C. (2000). Childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23, 89–101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Dubo, E. D., Sickel, A. E., Trikha, A., Levin, A., et al. (1998). Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1733–1739.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Khera, G. S., & Bleichmar, J. (2001). Treatment histories of borderline inpatients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 144–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Williams, A. A., Lewis, R. E., Reich, R. B., Vera, S. C., Marino, M. F., et al. (1997). Reported pathological childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1101–1106.Google ScholarPubMed