Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T18:28:55.927Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Relations among maternal socialization, effortful control, and maladjustment in early childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 June 2010

Nancy Eisenberg ,
Tracy L. Spinrad ,
Natalie D. Eggum ,
Kassondra M. Silva ,
Mark Reiser ,
Claire Hofer ,
Cynthia L. Smith ,
Bridget M. Gaertner ,
Anne Kupfer  and
Tierney Popp
...Show all authors
Nancy Eisenberg*
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Tracy L. Spinrad
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Natalie D. Eggum
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Kassondra M. Silva
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Mark Reiser
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Claire Hofer
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Cynthia L. Smith
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Bridget M. Gaertner
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Anne Kupfer
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Tierney Popp
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Nicole Michalik
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Nancy Eisenberg, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1004; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In a sample of 18-, 30-, and 42-month-olds, the relations among parenting, effortful control (EC), and maladjustment were examined. Parenting was assessed with mothers' reports and observations; EC was measured with mothers' and caregivers' reports, as well as a behavioral task; and externalizing and internalizing symptoms were assessed with parents' and caregivers' reports. Although 18-month unsupportive (vs. supportive) parenting negatively predicted EC at 30 months, when the stability of these variables was taken into account, there was no evidence of additional potentially causal relations between these two constructs. Although EC was negatively related to both internalizing and externalizing problems within all three ages as well as across 1 year, EC did not predict maladjustment once the stability of the constructs and within time covariation between the constructs were taken into account. In addition, externalizing problems at 30 months negatively predicted EC at 42 months, and internalizing problems at 30 months positively predicted EC at 42 months, but only when the effects of externalizing on EC were controlled. The findings are discussed in terms of the reasons for the lack of causal relations over time.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 22 , Issue 3: Developmental Cascades: Part 1 , August 2010 , pp. 507 - 525
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aksan, N., & Kochanska, G. (2004). Links between systems of inhibition from infancy to preschool years. Child Development, 75, 1477–1490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J., Pasco Fearon, R. M., & Bell, B. (2007). Parenting, attention and externalizing problems: Testing mediation longitudinally, repeatedly and reciprocally. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1233–1242.Google Scholar
Bridgett, D. J., Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., McKay, T., Iddins, E., Robertson, C., et al. (2009). Maternal and contextual influences and the effect of temperament development during infancy on parenting in toddlerhood. Infant Behavior and Development, 32, 103–116.Google Scholar
Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 467–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, A. S., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Jones, S. M., & Little, T. D. (2003). The Infant–Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 495–514.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Shiner, R. L. (2006). Personality development. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. (Series Eds. & Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 300–365). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotion regulation: Influences of attachment relationships. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 228–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockenberg, S. C., & Leerkes, E. M. (2004). Infant and maternal behaviors regulate infant reactivity to novelty at 6 months. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1123–1132.Google Scholar
Davidov, M., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warmth to child outcomes. Child Development, 77, 44–58.Google Scholar
Derryberry, D., & Reed, M. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225–236.Google Scholar
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1988). Arousal, affect, and attention as components of temperament. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 958–966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, A. (1990). Developmental time course in human infants and infant monkeys, and the neural bases of inhibitory control in reaching. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 608, 637–676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., Klebanov, P., et al. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1428–1446.Google Scholar
Eiden, R. D., Colder, C., Edwards, E. P., & Leonard, K. E. (2009). A longitudinal study of social competence among children of alcoholics and nonalcoholic parents: Role of parental psychopathology, parental warmth, and self-regulation. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 36–46.Google Scholar
Eiden, R. D., Edwards, E. P., & Leonard, K. E. (2007). A conceptual model for the development of externalizing behavior problems among kindergarten children of alcoholic families. Role of parenting and children's self-regulation. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1187–1201.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., et al. (2001). The relations of regulation and emotionality to children's externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Child Development, 72, 1112–1134.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1994). Mothers' reactions to children's negative emotions: Relations to children's temperament and anger behavior. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 40, 138–156.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Murphy, B. C. (1996). Parents' reactions to children's negative emotions: Relations to children's social competence and comforting behavior. Child Development, 67, 2227–2247.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Nyman, M., Bernzweig, J., Bernzweig, J., & Pinuelas, A. (1994). The relations of emotionality and regulation to children's anger-related reactions. Child Development, 65, 109–128.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Guthrie, I. K., Murphy, B. C., & Reiser, M. (1999). Parental reactions to children's negative emotions: Longitudinal relations to quality of children's social functioning. Child Development, 70, 513–534.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S. H., Valiente, C., et al. (2005). The relations of problem behavior status to children's negative emotionality, effortful control, and impulsivity: Concurrent relations and prediction of change. Developmental Psychology, 41, 193–211.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Spinrad, T. L., Cumberland, A., Liew, J., Reiser, M., et al. (2009). Longitudinal relations of children's effortful control, impulsivity, and negative emotionality to their externalizing, internalizing, and co-occurring behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 45, 988–1008.Google Scholar
Erber, R., & Tesser, A. (1992). Task effort and the regulation of mood: The absorption hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 339–359.Google Scholar
Eronen, S., Nurmi, J. E., & Salmela-Aro, K. (1997). Planning-oriented, avoidant, and impulsive social reaction styles: A person-oriented approach. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 34–57.Google Scholar
Findji, F. (1993). Attentional abilities and maternal scaffolding in the first year of life. International Journal of Psychology, 28, 681–692.Google Scholar
Fish, M., Stifter, C. A., & Belsky, J. (1991). Conditions of continuity and discontinuity in infant negative emotionality: Newborn to five months. Child Development, 62, 1525–1537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gable, S., & Isabella, R. A. (1992). Maternal contributions to infant regulation of arousal. Infant Behavior and Development, 15, 95–107.Google Scholar
Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 31–60.Google Scholar
Giesbrecht, G. F., Muller, U., & Miller, M. R. (2010). Psychological distancing in the development of executive function and emotion regulation. In Sokel, B. W., Muller, U., Carpendale, J. I. M., Young, A. R., & Iarocci, G. (Eds.), Self- and social-regulation: Social interaction and the development of social understanding and executive functions (pp. 337–357). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D. S., Beck, J. E., Schonberg, M. A., & Lukon, J. L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 38, 222–235.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, K. A., & Lemery, K. S. (1997). Toddler and childhood temperament: Expanded content, stronger genetic evidence, new evidence for the importance of environment. Developmental Psychology, 33, 891–905.Google Scholar
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-emotion: How families communicate emotionally. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994). Impact of parental discipline methods on the child's internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30, 4–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halberstadt, A. G., Crisp, V. W., & Eaton, K. L. (1999). Family expressiveness: A retrospective and new directions for research. In Philippot, P. & Feldman, R. S. (Eds.), The social context of nonverbal behavior. Studies in emotion and social interaction (pp. 109–155). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harman, C., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (1997). Distress and attention interactions in early infancy. Motivation and Emotion, 21, 27–43.Google Scholar
Hofer, C., Eisenberg, N., & Reiser, M. (in press). The role of socialization, effortful control, and resiliency in French adolescents' social functioning. Journal of Research on Adolescence.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guild. In Eisenberg, N. (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 218–231). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hrabok, M., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). The development of self-regulation: A neuropsychological perspective. In Sokel, B. W., Muller, U., Carpendale, J. I. M., Young, A. R., & Iarocci, G. (Eds.), Self- and social-regulation: Social interaction and the development of social understanding and executive functions (pp. 129–154). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hustedt, J. T., & Raver, C. C. (2002). Scaffolding in low-income mother–child dyads: Relations with joint attention and dyadic reciprocity. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26, 113–119.Google Scholar
Jones, L. B., Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2003). Development of executive attention in preschool children. Developmental Science, 6, 498–504.Google Scholar
Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. S. (1995). The development of coercive family processes: The interaction between aversive toddler behavior and parenting factors. In McCord, J. (Ed.), Coercion and punishment in long term perspectives (pp. 165–180). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keenan, K., Shaw, D., Delliquadri, E., Giovannelli, J., & Walsh, B. (1998). Evidence for the continuity of early problem behaviors: Application of a developmental model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 441–452.Google Scholar
Kieras, J. E., Tobin, R. E. M., Graziano, W. G., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005). You can't always get what you want: Effortful control and children's responses to undesirable gifts. Psychological Science, 16, 391–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S., & Brody, G. H. (2005). Longitudinal pathways to psychological adjustment among black youth living in single-parent households. Journal of Family Psychology, 19, 305–313.Google Scholar
Kline, R. B. (1998). The principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Barry, R. A., Aksan, N., & Boldt, L. J. (2008). A developmental model of maternal and child contributions to disruptive conduct: The first six years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1220–1227.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., & Coy, K. C. (2002). Child emotionality and maternal responsiveness as predictors of reunion behaviors in the strange situation: Links mediated and unmediated by separation distress. Child Development, 73, 228–240.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Coy, K. C., & Murray, K. T. (2001). The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1091–1111.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., & Knaack, A. (2003). Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children: Antecedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Personality, 71, 1087–1112.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, L. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kopp, C. B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25, 343–354.Google Scholar
Lemery, K. S., Essex, M. J., & Smider, N. A. (2002). Revealing the relation between temperament and behavior problem symptoms by eliminating measurement confounding: Expert ratings and factor analyses. Child Development, 73, 867–882.Google Scholar
Lemery-Chalfant, K., Doelger, L., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2008). Genetic relations between effortful and attentional control and symptoms of psychopathology in middle childhood. Infant and Child Development, 17, 365–385.Google Scholar
Lengua, L. A. (2006). Growth in temperament and parenting as predictors of adjustment during children's transition to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 42, 819–832.Google Scholar
Lengua, L. J. (2008). Anxiousness, frustration, and effortful control as moderators of the relation between parenting and adjustment in middle childhood. Social Development, 17, 554–577.Google Scholar
Lengua, L. J., Honorado, E., & Bush, N. R. (2007). Contextual risk and parenting as predictors of effortful control and social competence in preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 40–55.Google Scholar
Lewis, C., Carpendale, J., Towse, J., Maridaki-Kassotaki, K. (2010). Epistemic flow and the social making of minds. In Sokel, B. W., Muller, U., Carpendale, J. I. M., Young, A. R., & Iarocci, G. (Eds.), Self- and social-regulation: Social interaction and the development of social understanding and executive functions (pp. 80–110). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Martel, M. M., Nigg, J. T., Wong, M. M., Fitzgerald, H. E., Jester, J. M., et al. (2007). Childhood and adolescent resiliency, regulation, and executive functioning in relation to adolescent problems and competence in a high-risk sample. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 541–563.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradovic, J., Riley, J. R., et al. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746.Google Scholar
Mezzacappa, E. (2004). Alerting, orienting, and executive attention: Developmental properties and sociodemographic correlates in an epidemiological sample of young, urban children. Child Development, 75, 1373–1386.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., & Ayduk, O. (2004). Willpower in a cognitive-affective processing system: The dynamics of delay of gratification. In Baumeister, R. F. & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp . 99–129). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2006). Mplus user's guide (5th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Muris, P. (2006). Unique and interactive effects of neuroticism and effortful control on psychopathological symptoms in non-clinical adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1409–1419.Google Scholar
Muris, P., de Jong, P. J., & Engelen, S. (2004). Relationships between neuroticism, attentional control, and anxiety disorders symptoms in non-clinical children. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 789–797.Google Scholar
Murray, K. T., & Kochanska, G. (2002). Effortful control: Factor structure and relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 503–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). Predicting individual differences in attention, memory, and planning in first graders from experiences at home, child care, and school. Developmental Psychology, 41, 99–114.Google Scholar
Oldehinkel, A. J., Hartman, C.A., Ferdinand, R. F., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2007). Effortful control as modifier of the association between negative emotionality and adolescents' mental health problems. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 523–539.Google Scholar
Olson, S. L., Sameroff, A. J., Kerr, D. C. R., Lopez, N. L., & Wellman, H. M. (2005). Developmental foundations of externalizing problems in young children: The role of effortful control. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 25–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Popp, T. K., Spinrad, T. L., & Smith, C. L. (2008). The relation of cumulative demographic risk to mothers' responsivity and control: Examining the role of toddler temperament. Infancy, 13, 496–518.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1998). Summary and commentary: Developing attentional skills. In Richards, J. E. (Ed.), Cognitive neuroscience of attention: A developmental perspective (pp. 317–323). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., & Sheese, B. E. (2007). Attention genes. Developmental Science, 10, 25–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Power, T. G. (2004). Stress and coping in childhood: The parents' role. Parenting, 4, 271–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, S. P., Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2006). Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development, 29, 386–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, S. P., & Stifter, C. A. (2002). Development of approach and inhibition in the first year: Parallel findings from motor behavior, temperament ratings and directional cardiac response. Developmental Science, 5, 441–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raaijmakers, M. A. J., Smidts, D. P., Sergeant, J. A., Maassen, G. H., Posthumus, J. A., van Engeland, H., et al. (2008). Executive functions in preschool children with aggressive behavior: Impairments in inhibitory control. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 1097–1107.Google Scholar
Raver, C. C. (1996). Relations between social contingency in mother–child interaction and 2-year-olds social competence. Developmental Psychology, 32, 850–859.Google Scholar
Reed, M. A., Pien, D. L., & Rothbart, M. K. (1984). Inhibitory self-control in preschool children. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 30, 131–147.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Hershey, K. L. (1994). Temperament and social behavior in childhood. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 40, 21–39.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Child Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Eisenberg, N. (Series Ed.) & William, D. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 105–176). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ziaie, H., & O'Boyle, C. G. (1992). Self-regulation and emotion in infancy. In Eisenberg, N. & Fabes, R. A. (Eds.), Emotion and its regulation in early development. New directions for child development, no. 55 (pp. 7–23). San Francisco, CA: Jossey–Bass.Google Scholar
Rueda, M., Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Halparin, J. D., Gruber, D. B., Lercari, L. P., et al. (2004). Development of attentional networks in childhood. Neuropsychologia, 42, 1029–1040.Google Scholar
Rushton, J. P., Brainerd, C. J., & Pressley, M. (1983). Behavioral development and construct validity: The principle of aggregation. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 18–38.Google Scholar
Rydell, A. M., Berlin, L., & Bohlin, G. (2003). Emotionality, emotion regulation, and adaptation among 5- to 8-year-old children. Emotion, 3, 30–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A., & The Committee on Integrating the Science of Early Childhood Development. (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science.Google Scholar
Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2003). Adolescents' emotion regulation in daily life: Links to depressive symptoms and problem behavior. Child Development, 74, 1869–1880.Google Scholar
Smith, C. L., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Shelton, T. L. (2004). Predicting stability and change in toddler behavior problems: Contributions of maternal behavior and child gender. Developmental Psychology, 40, 29–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Gaertner, B., Popp, T., Smith, C. L., Kupfer, A., et al. (2007). Relations of maternal socialization and toddlers' effortful control to children's adjustment and social competence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1170–1186.Google Scholar
Spinrad, T. L., Stifter, C. A., Donelan McCall, N., & Turner, L. (2004). Mothers' regulation strategies in response to toddlers' affect: Links to later emotion self-regulation. Social Development, 13, 40–55.Google Scholar
Stifter, C. A., & Braungart, J. M. (1995). The regulation of negative reactivity in infancy: Function and development. Developmental Psychology, 31, 448–455.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (2006). The development of the person: Social understanding, relationships, conscience, self. In Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) & William, D. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 24–98). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Valiente, C., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Reiser, M., Cumberland, A., Losoya, S. H., et al. (2006). Relations among mothers' expressivity, children's effortful control, and their problem behaviors: A four-year longitudinal study. Emotion, 6, 459–472.Google Scholar
Yamagata, S., Takahashi, Y., Kijima, N., Maekawa, H., Ono, Y., & Ando, J. (2005). Genetic and environmental etiology of effortful control. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 8, 300–306.Google Scholar
Yap, M. B. H., Allen, N. B., & Ladouceur, C. D. (2008). Maternal socialization of positive affect: The impact of invalidation on adolescent emotion regulation and depressive symptomatology. Child Development, 79, 1415–1431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed