Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T11:30:27.216Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reexamining the restraint pathway as a conditional process among adolescent girls: When does dieting link body dissatisfaction to bulimia?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 October 2019

Rebecca A. Morrissey Open the ORCID record for Rebecca A. Morrissey [Opens in a new window] ,
Dawn M. Gondoli  and
Alexandra F. Corning
Rebecca A. Morrissey*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA.
Dawn M. Gondoli
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA.
Alexandra F. Corning
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA.
*
Author for Correspondence: Rebecca A. Morrissey, 390 Corbett Family Hall, Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN46556, USA. E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The mediational sequence from body dissatisfaction through dieting to bulimia—often referred to as the “restraint pathway”—has been validated in numerous samples of adolescent girls, but the prevalence rate of bulimic pathology pales in comparison to rates of body dissatisfaction and dieting in this risk group. This discrepancy indicates that the restraint pathway may only apply to adolescent girls possessing certain characteristics or experiencing certain circumstances. Accordingly, the current study examined the moderating roles of thin-ideal internalization, interoceptive deficits, and age by using self-report data from a community sample of 353 middle school (n = 115), high school (n = 112), and college girls (n = 126). We found that (a) body-dissatisfied girls who reported high, versus low, thin-ideal internalization engaged in greater dietary restraint; (b) only dieters who reported high interoceptive deficits and were of college age expressed bulimic symptoms; and (c) the mediating effect pertained only to college girls with high interoceptive deficits, but was strongest for those who reported high, versus low, thin-ideal internalization. These results suggest that the restraint pathway's precision may be fine-tuned through greater sensitivity to potentiating factors and developmental context. Theoretical, empirical, and practical implications are discussed.

Keywords

adolescent girlsbulimiadisordered eatinginteroceptive awarenessmoderated mediation
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Issue 3 , August 2020 , pp. 1031 - 1043
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Allen, K. L., Byrne, S. M., & McLean, N. J. (2012). The dual-pathway and cognitive-behavioural models of binge eating: Prospective evaluation and comparison. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 21(1), 51–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anestis, M. D., Selby, E. A., Fink, E. L., & Joiner, T. E. (2007). The multifaceted role of distress tolerance in dysregulated eating behaviors. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(8), 718–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Berscheid, E., Walster, E., & Bohrnstedt, G. (1973). The happy American body: A survey report. Psychology Today, 7(6), 119–131.Google Scholar
Blodgett Salafia, E. H., & Gondoli, D. M. (2010). A 4-year longitudinal investigation of the processes by which parents and peers influence the development of early adolescent girls’ bulimic symptoms. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 31(3), 390–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boswell, J. F., Anderson, L. M., & Anderson, D. A. (2015). Integration of interoceptive exposure in eating disorder treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 22(2), 194–210.Google Scholar
Bruch, H. (1973). Eating disorders: Obesity, anorexia nervosa, and the person within. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Bulik, C. M., Sullivan, P. F., Carter, F. A., & Joyce, P. R. (1997). Lifetime comorbidity of alcohol dependence in women with bulimia nervosa. Addictive Behaviors, 22(4), 437–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, W. B. (1932). The wisdom of the body. New York, NY: Norton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. E. (1990). Body images: Development, deviance, and change. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. (1998). Contextualism and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 10(2), 137–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8(04), 597–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Compas, B. E., Wagner, B. M., Slavin, L. A., & Vannatta, K. (1986). A prospective study of life events, social support, and psychological symptomatology during the transition from high school to college. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 241–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooley, E., & Toray, T. (2001). Body image and personality predictors of eating disorder symptoms during the college years. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 30(1), 28–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowther, J. H., Armey, M., Luce, K. H., Dalton, G. R., & Leahey, T. (2008). The point prevalence of bulimic disorders from 1990 to 2004. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 41(6), 491–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darlington, R. B. (1990). Regression and linear models. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Durbin, J., & Watson, G. S. (1951). Testing for serial correlation in least squares regression. II. Biometrika, 38(1/2), 159–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fairburn, C. G. (1997). Eating disorders. In Clark, D. M., & Fairburn, C. G. (Eds.), Science and practice of cognitive behaviour therapy (pp. 209–242). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., & Davies, B. A. (2014). Identifying dieters who will develop an eating disorder: A prospective, population-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 30(3), 2249–2255.Google Scholar
Fairburn, C. G., & Garner, D. M. (1988). Diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: The importance of attitudes to shape and weight. In Garner, D. M. & Garfinkel, P. E. (Eds.), Diagnostic issues in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (pp. 36–55). Philadelphia, PA: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Farb, N., Daubenmier, J., Price, C.J., Gard, T., Kerr, C., Dunn, B.D., … Mehling, W.E. (2015). Interoception, contemplative practice, and health. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fassino, S., Piero, A., Gramaglia, C., & Abbate-Daga, G. (2004). Clinical, psychopathological, and personality correlates of interoceptive awareness in anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and obesity. Psychopathology, 37(4), 168–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Field, A. E., Camargo, C. A., Taylor, C. B., Berkey, C. S., & Colditz, G. A. (1999). Relation of peer and media influences to the development of purging behaviors among preadolescent and adolescent girls. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153(11), 1184–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
French, S. A., Story, M., Downes, B., Resnick, M. D., & Blum, R. W. (1995). Frequent dieting among adolescents: Psychosocial and health behavior correlates. American Journal of Public Health, 85(5), 695–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gard, M. C., & Freeman, C. P. (1996). The dismantling of a myth: A review of eating disorders and socioeconomic status. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20(1), 1–12.3.0.CO;2-M>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garner, D. M., & Olmsted, M. P. (1984). Manual for eating disorder inventory (EDI). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2(2), 15–34.3.0.CO;2-6>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleaves, D. H., Brown, J. D., & Warren, C. S. (2004). The continuity/discontinuity models of eating disorders: A review of the literature and implications for assessment, treatment, and prevention. Behavior Modification, 28(6), 739–762.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gralen, S. J., Levine, M. P., Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (1990). Dieting and disordered eating during early and middle adolescence: Do the influences remain the same? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9(5), 501–512.3.0.CO;2-0>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hadigan, C. M., Walsh, B. T., Devlin, M. J., LaChaussée, J., & Kissileff, H. R. (1992). Behavioral assessment of satiety in bulimia nervosa. Appetite, 18(3), 233–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Herman, C. P., & Polivy, J. (2004). The self-regulation of eating: Theoretical and practical problems. In Baumeister, R. F. & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 492–508). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hill, A. J. (2002). Prevalence and demographics of dieting. In Fairburn, C. G. & Brownell, K. D. (Eds.), Eating disorders and obesity: A comprehensive handbook (pp. 80–83). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hill, A. J., Oliver, S., & Rogers, P. J. (1992). Eating in the adult world: The rise of dieting in childhood and adolescence. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31(1), 95–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ho, R. (2006). Handbook of univariate and multivariate data analysis and interpretation with SPSS. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Homan, K. (2010). Athletic-ideal and thin-ideal internalization as prospective predictors of body dissatisfaction, dieting, and compulsive exercise. Body Image, 7(3), 240–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judd, C. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1981). Process analysis estimating mediation in treatment evaluations. Evaluation Review, 5(5), 602–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenardy, J., Brown, W. J., & Vogt, E. (2001). Dieting and health in young Australian women. European Eating Disorders Review, 9(4), 242–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Killen, J. D., Taylor, C. B., Hayward, C., Haydel, K. F., Wilson, D. M., Hammer, L., … Strachowski, D. (1996). Weight concerns influence the development of eating disorders: A 4-year prospective study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(5), 936–940.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleckner, I.R., Zhang, J., Toroutoglou, A., Chanes, L., Xia, C., Simmons, W.K., … Barrett, L.F. (2017). Evidence for a large-scale brain system supporting allostasis and interoception in humans. Nature Human Behavior, 1, 1–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's depression inventory manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Kuczmarski, R. J., Ogden, C. L., Guo, S. S., Grummer-Strawn, L. M., Flegal, K. M., Mei, Z., … & Johnson, C. L. (2002). 2000 CDC Growth Charts for the United States: Methods and development. Vital Health Statistics, 11(246), 1–190.Google Scholar
Leon, G. R., Fulkerson, J. A., Perry, C. L., & Early-Zald, M. B. (1995). Prospective analysis of personality and behavioral vulnerabilities and gender influences in the later development of disordered eating. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104(1), 140–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Striegel-Moore, R. H., & Seeley, J. R. (2000). Epidemiology and natural course of eating disorders in young women from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(10), 1284–1292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livingston, S. A. (2004). Equating test scores (without IRT). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Lowe, M. R., Gleaves, D. H., DiSimone-Weiss, R. T., Furgueson, C., Gayda, C. A., Kolsky, P. A., … McKinney, S. (1996). Restraint, dieting, and the continuum model of bulimia nervosa. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(4), 508–517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendes, V., Araújo, J., Lopes, C., & Ramos, E. (2014). Determinants of weight loss dieting among adolescents: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 54(3), 360–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mintz, L. B., & Betz, N. E. (1988). Prevalence and correlates of eating disordered behaviors among undergraduate women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35(4), 463–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nelson, M. C., Kocos, R., Lytle, L. A., & Perry, C. L. (2009). Understanding the perceived determinants of weight-related behaviors in late adolescence: A qualitative analysis among college youth. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 41(4), 287–292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neumark-Sztainer, D., Butler, R., & Palti, H. (1995). Dieting and binge eating: Which dieters are at risk? Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 95(5), 586–589.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neumark-Sztainer, D., Croll, J., Story, M., Hannan, P. J., French, S. A., & Perry, C. (2002). Ethnic/racial differences in weight-related concerns and behaviors among adolescent girls and boys: Findings from Project EAT. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53(5), 963–974.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogden, C. L., Kuczmarski, R. J., Flegal, K. M., Mei, Z., Guo, S., Wei, R., …& Johnson, C.L. (2002). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000 growth charts for the United States: Improvements to the 1977 National Center for Health Statistics version. Pediatrics, 109(1), 45–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ouwens, M. A., van Strien, T., van Leeuwe, J. F. J., & van der Staak, C. P. F. (2009). The dual pathway model of overeating: Replication and extension with actual food consumption. Appetite, 52(1), 234–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patton, G. C., Selzer, R., Coffey, C., Carlin, J. B., & Wolfe, R. (1999). Onset of adolescent eating disorders: Population based cohort study over 3 years. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 318(7186), 765–768.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1985). Dieting and binging: A causal analysis. American Psychologist, 40(2), 193–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1987). Diagnosis and treatment of normal eating. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(5), 635–644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717–731.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42(1), 185–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putterman, E., & Linden, W. (2004). Appearance versus health: Does the reason for dieting affect dieting behavior? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 27(2), 185–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pyle, R. L., Mitchell, J. E., & Eckert, E. D. (1981). Bulimia: A report of 34 cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 42(2), 60–64.Google ScholarPubMed
Rodin, J., Silberstein, L., & Striegel-Moore, R. (1984). Women and weight: A normative discontent. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 32, 267–307.Google ScholarPubMed
Ruderman, A. J., & Besbeas, M. (1992). Psychological characteristics of dieters and bulimics. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(3), 383–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, G. (1979). Bulimia nervosa: An ominous variant of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 9(3), 429–448.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saarni, C. (1999). The development of emotional competence. New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, U., & Treasure, J. (2006). Anorexia nervosa: Valued and visible. A cognitive-interpersonal maintenance model and its implications for research and practice. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45(3), 343–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schoemaker, C., van Strien, T., & van der Staak, C. (1994). Validation of the eating disorders inventory in a nonclinical population using transformed and untransformed responses. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15(4), 387–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shepherd, H., & Ricciardelli, L. A. (1998). Test of Stice's dual pathway model: Dietary restraint and negative affect as mediators of bulimic behavior. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36(3), 345–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shisslak, C. M., Crago, M., Estes, L. S., & Gray, N. (1996). Content and method of developmentally appropriate prevention programs. In Smolak, L., Levine, M. P., & Striegel-Moore, R. (Eds.), The developmental psychopathology of eating disorders: Implications for research, prevention, and treatment (pp. 341–363). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Sim, L., & Zeman, J. (2004). Emotion awareness and identification skills in adolescent girls with bulimia nervosa. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(4), 760–771.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spoor, S. T., Stice, E., Burton, E., & Bohon, C. (2007). Relations of bulimic symptom frequency and intensity to psychosocial impairment and health care utilization: Results from a community-recruited sample. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(6), 505–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stice, E. (1994). Review of the evidence for a sociocultural model of bulimia nervosa and an exploration of the mechanisms of action. Clinical Psychology Review, 14(7), 633–661.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stice, E. (2001). A prospective test of the dual-pathway model of bulimic pathology: Mediating effects of dieting and negative affect. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110(1), 124–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 825–848.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stice, E., Marti, C. N., & Rhode, P. (2013). Prevalence, incidence, impairment, and course of the proposed DSM-5 eating disorder diagnoses in an 8-year prospective community study of young women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 445–457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stice, E., Marti, C. N., Shaw, H., & Jaconis, M. (2009). An 8-year longitudinal study of the natural history of threshold, subthreshold, and partial eating disorders from a community sample of adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(3), 587–597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stice, E., Mazotti, L., Krebs, M., & Martin, S. (1998). Predictors of adolescent dieting behaviors: A longitudinal study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 12(3), 195–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stice, E., & Shaw, H. (2003). Prospective relations of body image, eating, and affective disturbances to smoking onset in adolescent girls: How Virginia slims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 129–135.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stice, E., & Shaw, H. E. (1994). Adverse effects of the media portrayed thin-ideal on women and linkages to bulimic symptomatology. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13(3), 288–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stice, E., Shaw, H., & Nemeroff, C. (1998). Dual pathway model of bulimia nervosa: Longitudinal support for dietary restraint and affect-regulation mechanisms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 17(2), 129–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stice, E., Ziemba, C., Margolis, J., & Flick, P. (1996). The dual pathway model differentiates bulimics, subclinical bulimics, and controls: Testing the continuity hypothesis. Behavior Therapy, 27, 531–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Striegel-Moore, R. H. (1993). Etiology of binge eating: A developmental perspective. In Fairburn, C. & Wilson, G. T. (Eds.), Binge eating: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 144–172). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (1986). Toward an understanding of risk factors for bulimia. American Psychologist, 41(3), 246–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L. J., Altabe, M., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory, assessment, and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), 181–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, J. K., van den Berg, P., Roehrig, M., Guarda, A. S., & Heinberg, L. J. (2004). The sociocultural attitudes towards appearance scale-3 (SATAQ-3): Development and validation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35(3), 293–304.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Utschig, A. C., Presnell, K., Madeley, M. C., & Smits, J. A. (2010). An investigation of the relationship between fear of negative evaluation and bulimic psychopathology. Eating Behaviors, 11(4), 231–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Strien, T., Engels, R. C., van Leeuwe, J., & Snoek, H. M. (2005). The Stice model of overeating: Tests in clinical and non-clinical samples. Appetite, 45(3), 205–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Strien, T., Frijters, J. E., Bergers, G., & Defares, P. B. (1986). The Dutch eating behavior questionnaire (DEBQ) for assessment of restrained, emotional, and external eating behavior. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5(2), 295–315.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vohs, K. D., Heatherton, T. F., & Herrin, M. (2001). Disordered eating and the transition to college: A prospective study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(3), 280–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waterman, A. S. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and review of research. Developmental Psychology, 18(3), 341–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wertheim, E. H., Koerner, J., & Paxton, S. J. (2001). Longitudinal predictors of restrictive eating and bulimic tendencies in three different age groups of adolescent girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 30(1), 69–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wildes, J. E., Emery, R. E., & Simons, A. D. (2001). The roles of ethnicity and culture in the development of eating disturbance and body dissatisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 21(4), 521–551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodside, D. B., & Garfinkel, P. E. (1992). Age of onset in eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 12(1), 31–36.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yager, Z., & O'Dea, J. A. (2008). Prevention programs for body image and eating disorders on University campuses: A review of large, controlled interventions. Health Promotion International, 23(2), 173–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed