Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T18:37:29.024Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Plasticity of risky decision making among maltreated adolescents: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 May 2015

Joshua A. Weller ,
Leslie D. Leve ,
Hyoun K. Kim ,
Jabeene Bhimji  and
Philip A. Fisher
Joshua A. Weller*
Affiliation:
Oregon State University Decision Research
Leslie D. Leve
Affiliation:
University of Oregon Oregon Social Learning Center
Hyoun K. Kim
Affiliation:
Oregon Social Learning Center
Jabeene Bhimji
Affiliation:
Idaho State University
Philip A. Fisher
Affiliation:
University of Oregon
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Joshua A. Weller, School of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, 2950 SW Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Childhood maltreatment has lasting negative effects throughout the life span. Early intervention research has demonstrated that these effects can be remediated through skill-based, family-centered interventions. However, less is known about plasticity during adolescence, and whether interventions are effective many years after children experience maltreatment. This study investigated this question by examining adolescent girls' ability to make advantageous decisions in the face of risk using a validated decision-making task; performance on this task has been associated with key neural regions involved in affective processing and executive functioning. Maltreated foster girls (n = 92), randomly assigned at age 11 to either an intervention designed to prevent risk-taking behaviors or services as usual (SAU), and nonmaltreated age and socioeconomic status matched girls living with their biological parent(s) (n = 80) completed a decision-making task (at age 15–17) that assessed risk taking and sensitivity to expected value, an index of advantageous decision making. Girls in the SAU condition demonstrated the greatest decision-making difficulties, primarily for risks to avoid losses. In the SAU group, frequency of neglect was related to greater difficulties in this area. Girls in the intervention condition with less neglect performed similarly to nonmaltreated peers. This research suggests that early maltreatment may impact decision-making abilities into adolescence and that enriched environments during early adolescence provide a window of plasticity that may ameliorate these negative effects.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 27 , Special Issue 2: Neural Plasticity, Sensitive Periods, and Psychopathology , May 2015 , pp. 535 - 551
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarons, G. A., Brown, S. A., Hough, R. L., Garland, A. F., & Wood, P. A. (2001). Prevalence of adolescent substance use disorders across five sectors of care. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 419–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Kabbini, N. S. (2001). The dropout process in life course perspective: Early risk factors at home and school. Teachers College Record, 103, 760– 882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnett, J. (1992). Reckless behavior in adolescence: A developmental perspective. Developmental Review, 12, 339–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barkley-Levenson, E., & Galván, A. (2014). Neural representation of expected value in the adolescent brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 1646–1651.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, D., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Defining child maltreatment: The interface between policy and research. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy (pp. 7–74). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Bartra, O., McGuire, J. T., & Kable, J. W. (2013). The valuation system: A coordinate-based meta-analysis of BOLD fMRI experiments examining neural correlates of subjective value. NeuroImage, 76, 412–427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5, 323–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Damasio, A. R., & Lee, G. P. (1999). Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. Journal of Neuroscience, 19, 5473–5481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beers, S. R., & DeBellis, M. D. (2002). Neuropsychological function in children with maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 483–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryck, R. L., & Fisher, P. A. (2012). Training the brain: Practical applications of neural plasticity from the intersection of cognitive neuroscience, developmental psychology, and prevention science. American Psychologist, 67, 87–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cameron, N. M., Champagne, F. A., Parent, C., Fish, E. W., Ozaki-Kuroda, K., & Meaney, M. J. (2005). The programming of individual differences in defensive responses and reproductive strategies in the rat through variations in maternal care. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 843–865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cantin, S., & Boivin, M. (2004). Change and stability in children's social network and self-perceptions during transition from elementary to junior high school. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28, 561–570.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrion, V. G., Weems, C. F., Eliez, S., Patwardhan, A., Brown, W., Ray, R. D., et al. (2001). Attenuation of frontal asymmetry in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 943–951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carrion, V. G., Weems, C. F., Richert, K., Hoffman, B. C., & Reiss, A. L. (2010). Decreased prefrontal cortical volume associated with increased bedtime cortisol in traumatized youth. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 491–493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Somerville, L. H. (2011). Braking and accelerating of the adolescent brain. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 21–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cauffman, E., Feldman, S. S., Waterman, J., & Steiner, H. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder among female juvenile offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1209–1216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cauffman, E., Shulman, E. P., Steinberg, L., Claus, E., Banich, M. T., Graham, S., et al. (2010). Age differences in affective decision making as indexed by performance on the Iowa Gambling Task. Developmental Psychology, 46, 193–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chamberlain, P., Leve, L. D., & Smith, D. K. (2006). Preventing behavior problems and health-risking behaviors in girls in foster care. International Journal of Behavioral and Consultation Therapy, 2, 518–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chamberlain, P., Price, J. M., Reid, J. B., Landsverk, J., Fisher, P. A, & Stoolmiller, M. (2006). Who disrupts from placement in foster and kinship care? Child Abuse and Neglect, 30, 409–424.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, H., Elias, M., & Schneider, K. (1998). Patterns of individual adjustment changes during middle school transition. Journal of School Psychology, 36, 83–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2013). Annual Research Review: Resilient functioning in maltreated children— Past, present, and future perspectives. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 402–422.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2005). An event-related potential study of the processing of affective facial expressions in young children who experienced maltreatment during the first year of life. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 641–677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783–804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Howe, M. L., & Toth, S. L. (2010). The effects of maltreatment on neuroendocrine regulation and memory performance. Child Development, 81, 1504–1519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Toth, S. L., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2011). Normalizing the development of cortisol regulation in maltreated infants through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 789–800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cisler, J. M., James, G. A., Tripathi, S., Mletzko, T., Heim, C., Hu, X. P., et al. (2013). Differential functional connectivity within an emotion regulation neural network among individuals resilient and susceptible to the depressogenic effects of early life stress. Psychological Medicine, 43, 507–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cobb-Clark, D. A., Ryan, C., & Sartbayeva, A. (2012). Taking chances: The effect that growing up on welfare has on the risky behavior of young people. Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 114, 729–755.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crone, E., & van der Molen, M. W. (2004). Developmental changes in real life decision making: Performance on a gambling task previously shown to depend on the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 251–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crone, E. A., & Dahl, R. E. (2012). Understanding adolescence as a period of social–affective engagement and goal flexibility. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13, 636–650.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, W. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Affective facial expression processing in young children who have experienced maltreatment during the first year of life: An event-related potential (ERP) study. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 373–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, W. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Affective facial expression processing in 15-month-old infants who have experienced maltreatment: An event-related potential study. Child Maltreatment, 18, 140–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeBellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Shifflett, H., Iyengar, S., Beers, S. R., Hall, J., et al. (2002). Brain structures in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A sociodemographically matched study. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 1066–1078.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J. P., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 845–859.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernst, M., Dickstein, D. P., Munson, S., Eshel, N., Pradella, A., Jazbec, S., et al. (2004). Reward-related processes in pediatric bipolar disorder: A pilot study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82 (Suppl. 1), S89–S101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernst, M., Nelson, E. E., Jazbec, S., McClure, E. B., Monk, C. S., Leibenluft, E., et al. (2005). Amygdala and nucleus accumbens in responses to receipt and omission of gains in adults and adolescents. NeuroImage, 25, 1279–1291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fang, X., Brown, D. S., Florence, C. S., & Mercy, J. A. (2012). The economic burden of child maltreatment in the United States and implications for prevention. Child Abuse and Neglect, 36, 156–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fenzel, L. M. (2000). Prospective study of changes in global self-worth and strain during the transition to middle school. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20, 93–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, P. A., Bruce, J., Abdullev, Y., Mannering, A. M., & Pears, K. C. (2011). The effects of early adversity on the development of inhibitory control: Implications for the design of preventive interventions and the potential recovery of function. In Bardo, M. T., Fishbein, D. H., & Milich, R. (Eds.), Inhibitory control and abuse prevention: From research to translation (pp. 229–247). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, P. A., Gunnar, M., Dozier, M., Bruce, J., & Pears, K. C. (2006). Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster children on behavior problems, caregiver attachment, and stress regulatory neural systems. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 215–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, P. A., & Stoolmiller, M. (2008). Intervention effects on foster parent stress: Associations with child cortisol levels. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 1003–1021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, P. A., Stoolmiller, M., Gunnar, M. R., & Burraston, B. O. (2007). Effects of a therapeutic intervention for foster preschoolers on diurnal cortisol activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 892–905.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forbes, E. E., & Dahl, R. E. (2010). Pubertal development and behavior: Hormonal activation of social and motivational tendencies. Brain and Cognition, 72, 66–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, N. A., Almas, A. N., Degnan, K. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011). The effects of severe psychosocial deprivation and foster care intervention on cognitive development at 8 years of age: Findings from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59, 919–928.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galvan, A., Hare, T., Voss, H., Glover, G., & Casey, B. J. (2006). Earlier development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 6885–6892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garland, A. F., Hough, R. L., McCabe, K. M, Yeh, M., Wood, P. A., & Aarons, G. A. (2001). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in youths across five sectors of care. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 409–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, X., Natsuaki, M. N., Jin, R., & Biehl, M. C. (2011). A contextual amplication hypothesis: Pubertal timing and girls' emotional and behavioral problems. In Kerr, M., Stattin, H., Engles, R. C. M. E., Overbeerk, G., & Andershed, A. (Eds.), Understanding girls' problem behavior: How girls' delinquency develops in the context of maturity and health, co-occurring problems, and relationships: Hot topics in developmental research (pp. 11–29). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley–Blackwell.Google Scholar
Gehring, W. J., & Willoughby, A. R. (2002). The medial frontal cortex and the rapid processing of monetary gains and losses. Science, 295, 2279–2282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gramkowski, B., Kools, S., Paul, S., Boyer, C. B., Monasterio, E., & Robbins, N. (2009). Health risk behavior of youth in foster care. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 22, 77–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Fisher, P. A., & the Early Experience, Stress, and Prevention Network (2006). Bringing basic research on early experience and stress neurobiology to bear on preventive interventions for neglected and maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 651–677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyer, A. E., Kaufman, J., Hodgdon, H. B., Masten, C. L., Jazbec, S., Pine, D. S., et al. (2006). Behavioral alterations in reward system function: The role of childhood maltreatment and psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1059–1067.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guyer, A. E., Monk, C. S., McClure-Tone, E. B., Nelson, E. E., Roberson-Nay, R., Adler, A. D., et al. (2008). A developmental examination of amygdala response to facial expressions. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 1565–1582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herringa, R. J., Brin, R. M., Ruttle, P. L., Burghy, C. A., Stodola, D. E., Davidson, R. J., et al. (2013). Childhood maltreatment is associated with altered fear circuitry and increased internalizing symptoms by late adolescence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 19119–19124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huizenga, H. M., Crone, E. A., & Jansen, B. J. (2007). Decision-making in healthy children, adolescents and adults explained by the use of increasingly complex proportional reasoning rules. Developmental Science, 10, 814–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johansson, P., & Kempf-Leonard, K. (2009). A gender-specific pathway to serious, violent, and chronic offending? Exploring Howell's risk factors for serious delinquency. Crime and Delinquency, 55, 216–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Smailes, E., & Brook, J. S. (2001). Association of maladaptive parental behavior with psychiatric disorder among parents and their offspring. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 453–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, H. K., & Leve, L. D. (2011). Substance use and delinquency among middle school girls in foster care: A three-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 740–750.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuhnen, C. M., & Knutson, B. (2005). The neural basis of financial risk taking. Neuron, 47, 763–770.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leve, L. D., & Chamberlain, P. (2005). Girls in the juvenile justice system: Risk factors and clinical implications. In Pepler, D., Madsen, K., Webster, C., & Levine, K. (Eds.), Development and treatment of girlhood aggression (pp. 191–215). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Leve, L. D., Fisher, P. A., & DeGarmo, D. S. (2007). Peer relations at school entry: Sex differences in the outcomes of foster care. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 53, 557–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., Chamberlain, P., Landsverk, J. A., Fisher, P. A., & Vostanis, P. (2012). Practitioner Review: Children in foster care: Vulnerabilities and evidence-based interventions that promote resilience processes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 1197–1211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leve, L. D., Kerr, D. C. R., & Harold, G. T. (2013). Young adult outcomes associated with teen pregnancy among high-risk girls in a randomized controlled trial of multidimensional treatment foster care. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 22, 421–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, I. P., Gaeth, G. J.Schreiber, J., & Lauriola, M. (2002). A new look at framing effects: Distribution of effect sizes, individual differences, and independence of types of effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 88, 411–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, I. P., & Hart, S. S. (2003). Risk preferences in young children: Early evidence of individual differences in reaction to potential gains and losses. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 16, 397–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levin, I. P., Xue, G., Weller, J. A., Reimann, M., Lauriola, M., & Bechara, A. (2012). A neuropsychological approach to understanding risk-taking for potential gains and losses. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, E. E., Dozier, M., Ackerman, J., & Sepulveda-Kozakowski, S. (2007). The effect of placement instability on adopted children's inhibitory control abilities and oppositional behavior. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1415–1427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liang, K. Y., & Zeger, S. L. (1986). Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika, 73, 13–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lissau, I., & Sorensen, T. I. A. (1994). Parental neglect during childhood and increased risk of obesity in young adulthood. Lancet, 343, 324–327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mather, M., & Lighthall, N. R. (2012). Risk and reward are processed differently in decisions made under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 36–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrory, E. J., De Brito, S. A, Sebastian, C. L., Mechelli, A., Bird, G., Kelly, P. A., et al. (2011). Heightened neural reactivity to threat in child victims of family violence. Current Biology, 21, R947–R948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendle, J., Leve, L. D., Van Ryzin, M., Natsuaki, M. N., & Ge, X. (2011). Associations between early life stress, child maltreatment, and pubertal development in foster care girls. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 871–880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merz, E. C., McCall, R. B., & Groza, V. (2013). Parent-reported executive functioning in postinstitutionalized children: A follow-up study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 42, 726–733.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohr, P. N. C., Biele, G., & Heekeren, H. R. (2010). Neural processing of risk. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 6613–6619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montgomery, S. M., Bartley, M. J., Wilkinson, R. G. (1997). Family conflict and slow growth. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 77, 326–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Natsuaki, M. N., Leve, L. D., & Mendle, J. (2011). Going through the rites of passage too early: Timing and transition of menarche, childhood sexual abuse, and anxiety. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 1375–1370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, S. W., Nelson, C. A., & the Bucharest Early Intervention Core Group (2005). The impact of early institutional rearing on the ability to discriminate facial expressions of emotion: An event-related potential study. Child Development, 76, 54–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 55–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Klorman, R., & Brumaghim, J. T. (1997). Cognitive brain event-related potentials and emotion processing in maltreated children. Child Development, 68, 773–787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., Nelson, C. A., Schlaak, M. F., Roeber, B. J., Wewerka, S. S., Wiik, K. L., et al. (2010). Neurodevelopmental effects of early deprivation in post-institutionalized children. Child Development, 81, 224–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pollak, S. D., & Tolley-Schell, S. A. (2003). Selective attention to facial emotion in physically abused children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 323–338.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reider, C., & Cicchetti, D. (1989). Organizational perspective on cognitive control functioning and cognitive–affective balance in maltreated children. Developmental Psychology, 25, 382–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyna, V. F., & Farley, F. (2006). Risk and rationality in adolescent decision making: Implications for theory, practice, and public policy. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7, 1–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rolls, E. T., McCabe, C., & Redoute, J. (2008). Expected value, reward outcome, and temporal difference error representations in a probabilistic decision task. Cerebral Cortex, 18, 652–663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romer, D. (2010). Adolescent risk taking, impulsivity, and brain development: Implications for prevention. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 263–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., & Ahadi, S. A. (1994). Temperament and the development of personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 55–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rottenstreich, Y., & Hsee, C. K. (2001). Money, kisses, and electric shocks: On the affective psychology of risk. Psychological Science, 12, 185–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2000). Resilience reconsidered: Conceptual considerations, empirical findings, and policy implications. In Shonkoff, J. P. & Meiseis, S. J. (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood intervention (2nd ed., pp. 651–682). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (2007). Resilience, competence, and coping. Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, 205–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Kreppner, J., Kumsta, R., et al. (2010). Deprivation-specific psychological patterns: Effects of institutional deprivation. Malden, MA: Wiley–Blackwell.Google Scholar
Schlottmann, A., & Tring, J. (2005). How children reason about gains and losses: Framing effects in judgement and choice. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 64, 153–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipley, W. C. (1940). A self-administering scale for measuring intellectual impairment and deterioration. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 9371–9377.Google Scholar
Singer, T., Critchley, H. D., & Preuschoff, K. (2009). A common role of insula in feelings, empathy and uncertainty. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 334–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sokol-Hessner, P., Hsu, M., Curley, N. G., Delgado, M. R., Camerer, C. F., & Phelps, E. A. (2009). Thinking like a trader selectively reduces individuals' loss aversion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 5035–5040.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spann, M. N., Mayes, L. C., Kalmar, J. H., Guiney, J., Womer, F. Y., Pittman, B., et al. (2012). Childhood abuse and neglect and cognitive flexibility in adolescents. Child Neuropsychology, 18, 182–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L. (2004). Risk taking in adolescence: What changes and why? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 51–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28, 78–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teicher, M. H., Anderson, C. M., Ohashi, K., & Polcari, A. (2013). Childhood maltreatment: Altered network centrality of cingulate, precuneus, temporal pole and insula. Biological Psychiatry. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.016Google ScholarPubMed
Teplin, L. A., Abram, K. M., McClelland, G. M., Dulcan, M. K., & Mericle, A. A. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 1133–1143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trickett, P., & McBride-Chang, C. (1995). The developmental impact of different forms of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Review, 15, 311–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Werff, S. J. A., Pannekoek, J. N., Veer, I. M., van Tol, M.-J., Aleman, A., Veltman, D. J. et al. (2012). Resting-state functional connectivity in adults with childhood emotional maltreatment. Psychological Medicine, 43, 1825–1836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Von Neumann, J., & Morgenstern, O. (1947). Theory of games and economic behavior (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Wang, L., Dai, Z., Peng, H., Tan, L., Ding, Y., He, Z., et al. (2014). Overlapping and segregated resting-state functional connectivity in patients with major depressive disorder with and without childhood neglect. Human Brain Mapping, 35, 1154–1166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinstein, N., Slovic, P., Waters, E., & Gibson, G. (2004). Public understanding of the illnesses caused by cigarette smoking. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 6, 349–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weller, J. A., & Fisher, P. A. (2013). Decision-making deficits among maltreated children. Child Maltreatment, 18, 184–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., & Denburg, N. L. (2011). Trajectory of risky decision making for potential gains and losses: From ages 5 to 85. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 24, 331–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., Rose, J. P., & Bossard, E. (2012). Assessment of decision-making competence in preadolescence. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 25, 414–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., Shiv, B., & Bechara, A. (2007). Neural correlates of adaptive decision making in risky gains and losses. Psychological Science, 18, 958–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weller, J. A., Levin, I. P., Shiv, B., & Bechara, A. (2009). The effects of insula damage on decision-making for risky gains and losses. Social Neuroscience, 4, 347–358.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weller, J. A., Moholy, M., Bossard, E., & Levin, I. P. (2015). Pre-teen decision-making competence predicts later interpersonal strengths and difficulties: A two-year prospective study. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 28, 76–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiech, K., Lin, C. S., Brodersen, K. H., Bingel, U., Ploner, M., & Tracey, I. (2010). Anterior insula integrates information about salience into perceptual decisions about pain. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 16324–16331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xue, G., Lu, Z., Levin, I. P., Weller, J. A., Li, X., & Bechara, A. (2009). Functional dissociations of risk and reward processing in the medial prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 1019–1027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yechiam, E., & Hochman, G. (2013). Losses as modulators of attention: Review and analysis of the unique effects of losses over gains. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 497–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yechiam, E., & Telpaz, A. (2013). Losses induce consistency in risk taking even without loss aversion. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 26, 31–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zachary, R. A., Paulson, M. J., & Gorsuch, R. L. (1985). Estimating WAIS IQ from the Shipley Institute of Living Scale using continuously adjusted norms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 41, 820–831.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar