Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-30T03:55:24.181Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Pathways and processes of risk in associations among maternal antisocial personality symptoms, interparental aggression, and preschooler's psychopathology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 July 2012

Patrick T. Davies ,
Melissa L. Sturge-Apple ,
Dante Cicchetti ,
Liviah G. Manning  and
Sara E. Vonhold
Patrick T. Davies*
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
Melissa L. Sturge-Apple
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
Dante Cicchetti
Affiliation:
Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester University of Minnesota
Liviah G. Manning
Affiliation:
University of Rochester
Sara E. Vonhold
Affiliation:
Mt. Hope Family Center, University of Rochester
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Patrick Davies, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627; E-mail: [email protected].
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Two studies examined the nature and processes underlying the joint role of interparental aggression and maternal antisocial personality as predictors of children's disruptive behavior problems. Participants for both studies included a high-risk sample of 201 mothers and their 2-year-old children in a longitudinal, multimethod design. Addressing the form of the interplay between interparental aggression and maternal antisocial personality as risk factors for concurrent and prospective levels of child disruptive problems, the Study 1 findings indicated that maternal antisocial personality was a predictor of the initial levels of preschooler's disruptive problems independent of the effects of interparental violence, comorbid forms of maternal psychopathology, and socioeconomic factors. In attesting to the salience of interparental aggression in the lives of young children, latent difference score analyses further revealed that interparental aggression mediated the link between maternal antisocial personality and subsequent changes in child disruptive problems over a 1-year period. To identify the family mechanisms that account for the two forms of intergenerational transmission of disruptive problems identified in Study 1, Study 2 explored the role of children's difficult temperament, emotional reactivity to interparental conflict, adrenocortical reactivity in a challenging parent–child task, and experiences with maternal parenting as mediating processes. Analyses identified child emotional reactivity to conflict and maternal unresponsiveness as mediators in pathways between interparental aggression and preschooler's disruptive problems. The findings further supported the role of blunted adrenocortical reactivity as an allostatic mediator of the associations between parental unresponsiveness and child disruptive problems.

Type
Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 24 , Issue 3: Multilevel Approaches Toward Understanding Antisocial Behavior: Current Research and Future Directions , August 2012 , pp. 807 - 832
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., Dumenci, L., & Rescorla, L. A. (2003). DSM-oriented and empirically based approaches to constructing scales from the same item pools. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 328–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2006). The Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment. In Archer, R. P. (Ed.), Forensic uses of clinical assessment instruments (pp. 229–262). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: Assessed in the strange situation and at home. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Alink, L. R. A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Mesman, J., Juffer, F., & Koot, H. M. (2008). Cortisol and externalizing behavior in children and adolescents: Mixed meta-analytic evidence for the inverse relation of basal cortisol and cortisol reactivity with externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 427–450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Bascoe, S. M., Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Cummings, E. M. (2009). Children's representations of family relationships, peer information processing, and school adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1740–1751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monographs, 4, 1–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bavolek, S. (1984). Handbook for the AAPI (Adult–Adolescent Parenting Inventory). Park City, UT: Family Development Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis–stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, C., Granger, D., Kivlighan, K., Mills-Koonce, W. R., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., et al. (2008). Maternal and child contributions to cortisol response to emotional arousal in young children from low-income, rural communities. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1095–1109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosquet, M., & Egeland, B. (2000). Predicting parenting behaviors from antisocial practices content scale scores of the MMPI-2 administered during pregnancy. Journal of Personality Assessment, 74, 146–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruce, J., Davis, E. P., & Gunnar, M. R. (2002). Individual differences in children's cortisol response to the beginning of a new school year. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 635–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchanan, C. M., & Waizenhofer, R. (2001). The impact of interparental conflict on adolescent children: Considerations of family systems and family structure. In Booth, A., Crouter, A. C., & Clements, M. (Eds.), Couples in conflict (pp. 149–160). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Buehler, C., Benson, M., & Gerard, J. M. (2006). Interparental hostility and early adolescent problem behavior: The mediating role of specific aspects of parenting. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 265–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, S. B. (1994). Hard-to-manage preschool boys: Externalizing behavior, social competence, and family context at two-year follow-up. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 147–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, S. B., Shaw, D. S., & Gilliom, M. (2000). Early externalizing behavior problems: Toddlers and preschoolers at risk for later maladjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 467–488.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B., & von Stauffenberg, C. (2009). Delay and inhibition as early predictors of ADHD symptoms in third grade. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., Patterson, G. R., & Owen, L. D. (2003). Continuity of parenting practices across generations in an at-risk sample: A prospective comparison of direct and mediated associations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 127–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2008). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on research in developmentand psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. P. & Hinshaw, S. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 27–57). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Cummings, M., Greenberg, M., & Marvin, R. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment theory beyond infancy: Implications for theory, measurement, and research. In Greenberg, M., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, M. (Eds.), Attachment during the preschool years (pp. 3–49). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2007). Personality, adrenal steroid hormones, and resilience in maltreated children: A multilevel perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 787–809.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1995). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 541–565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compton, W. M., & Cottler, L. B. (2004). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS). In Hersen, M. (Ed.) & Hilsenroth, M. J. & Segal, D. L. (Vol. Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment: Vol. 2. Personality assessment (pp. 153–162). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cowan, P. A., & Cowan, C. P. (2002). Interventions as tests of family systems theories: Marital and family relationships in children's development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 731–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockenberg, S. B., & Langrock, A. (2001a). The role of emotion and emotional regulation in children's responses to interparental conflict. In Grych, J. H. & Fincham, F. D. (Eds.), Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 129–156). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crockenberg, S. B., & Langrock, A. (2001b). The role of specific emotions in children's responses to interparental conflict: A test of the model. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 163–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., Iannotti, R. J., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1989). Aggression between peers in early childhood: Individual continuity and developmental change. Child Development, 60, 887–895.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (2006). Interparental discord, family process, and developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 86–128). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Martin, M. J. (in press). Towards greater specificity identifying associations among interparental aggression, child emotional reactivity to conflict, and child problems. Child Development.Google Scholar
Davies, P. T., Harold, G. T., Goeke-Morey, M., & Cummings, E. M. (2002). Children's emotional security and interparental conflict. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67, 1–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2007). Advances in the formulation of emotional security theory: An ethologically-based perspective. Advances in Child Behavior and Development, 35, 87–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Interparental aggression and children's adrenocortical reactivity: Testing an evolutionary model of allostatic load. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 801–814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (2007). The role of child adrenocortical functioning in pathways between forms of interparental conflict and child maladjustment. Developmental Psychology, 43, 918–930.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Cicchetti, D., Manning, L. G., & Zale, E. (2009). Children's patterns of emotional reactivity to conflict as explanatory mechanisms in links between interpartner aggression and child physiological functioning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1384–1391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Sturge-Apple, M. L., Woitach, M. J., & Cummings, E. M. (2009). A process analysis of the transmission of distress from interparental conflict to parenting: Adult relationship security as an explanatory mechanism. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1761–1773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, P. T., Winter, M. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2006). The implications of emotional security theory for understanding and treating childhood psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 707–735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 1–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dougherty, L. R., Klein, D. N., Rose, S., & Laptook, R. S. (2011). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis reactivity in the preschool-aged offspring of depressed parents: Moderation by early parenting. Psychological Science, 22, 650–658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
El-Sheikh, E., Cummings, E. M., Kouros, C. D., Elmore-Staton, L., & Buckhalt, J. (2008). Marital psychological and physical aggression and children's mental and physical health: Direct, mediated, and moderated effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 138–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Hinnant, J. B., & Erath, S. A. (2011). Developmental trajectories of delinquency symptoms in childhood: The role of marital conflict and autonomic nervous system activity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 16–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, B. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2008). Biological sensitivity to context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 183–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Emery, R. E., Waldron, M., Kitzmann, K. M., & Aaron, J. (1999). Delinquent behavior, future divorce or nonmarital childrearing, and externalizing behavior among offspring: A 14-year prospective study. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 568–579.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enders, C. K. (2001). A primer on maximum likelihood algorithms for use with missing data. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 128–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent–child relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 108–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fantuzzo, J. W., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., Atkins, M., & Marcus, S. (1997). Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 116–122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2008). Developmental antecedents of interpartner violence in a New Zealand birth cohort. Journal of Family Violence, 23, 737–753.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (1998). Exposure to interparental violence in childhood and psychosocial adjustment in young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 339–357.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferrer, E., Balluerka, N., & Widaman, K. F. (2008). Factorial invariance and the specification of second-order latent growth models. Methodology, 4, 22–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Finkel, E. J., DeWall, C. N., Slotter, E. B., Oaten, M., & Foshee, V. A. (2009). Self-regulatory failure and intimate partner violence perpetration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 483–499.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischer, J., & Corcoran, K. (2007). Measures for clinical practice and research: A sourcebook (4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fries, E., Hesse, J., Hellhammer, J., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2005). A new view hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 1010–1016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Floyd, F., Gilliom, L. A., & Costigan, C. L. (1998). Marriage and the parenting alliance: Longitudinal prediction of change in parenting perceptions and behaviors. Child Development, 69, 1461–1479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, N. A., Hane, A. A., & Perez-Edgar, K. (2006). Psychophysiological methods for the study of developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental meuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 381–426). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J. (1994). Family dysfunction and the disruptive behavior disorders: A review of recent empirical findings. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 16, 203–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Jackson, Y. K. (1993). Family functioning and childhood antisocial behavior: Yet another reinterpretation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 22, 410–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frick, P. J., Lahey, B. B., Hartdagen, S. E., & Hynd, G. W. (1989). Conduct problems in boys: Relations to maternal personality, marital satisfaction, and socioeconomic status. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18, 114–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, X., Best, K., Conger, R. D., & Simons, R. L. (1996). Parenting behaviors and the occurrence and co-occurrence of adolescent depressive symptoms and conduct problems. Developmental Psychology 32, 717–731.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geiser, C., Eid, M., Nussbeck, F. W., Courvoisier, D. S., & Cole, D. A. (2010). Analyzing true change in longitudinal multitrait–multimethod studies: Application of a multimethod change model to depression and anxiety in children. Developmental Psychology, 46, 29–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, L., Harvey, E., Friedman-Weieneth, J., Pierce, C., Tellert, A., & Sippel, J. (2007). Examining subtypes of behavior problems among 3-year-old children: Part II. Investigating differences in parent psychopathology, couple conflict, and other family stressors. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 111–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodwin, R. D., & Hamilton, S. P. (2003). Lifetime comorbidity of antisocial personality disorder and anxiety disorders among adults in the community. Psychiatry Research, 117, 159–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Chou, S. P., & Ruan, W. J. (2005). Co-occurrence of 12-month mood and anxiety disorders and personality disorders in the US: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 39, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grych, J. H. (1998). Children's appraisals of interparental conflict: Situational and contextual influences. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 437–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive–contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (Eds.). (2001). Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research, and applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grych, J. H., Harold, G. T., & Miles, C. J. (2003). A prospective investigation of appraisals as mediators of the link between interparental conflict and child adjustment. Child Development, 74, 1176–1193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2006). Stress neurobiology and developmental psychopathology. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 533–577). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hane, A. A., Fox, N. A., Henderson, H., & Marshall, P. J. (2008). Early behavioral reactivity and approach–withdrawal bias in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1491–1496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harden, K. P., Lynch, S. K., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., D'Onofrio, B. M., & Slutske, W. S. (2007). A behavior genetic investigation of adolescent motherhood and offspring mental health problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 667–683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harden, K. P., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., D'Onofrio, B. M., Slutske, W., Heath, A., et al. (2007). Marital conflict and conduct disorder in children of twins. Child Development, 78, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardie, T. L., Moss, H. B., Vanyukov, M. M., Yao, J. K., & Kirollovac, G. P. (2002). Does adverse family environment or sex matter in the salivary cortisol responses to anticipatory stress? Psychiatry Research, 112, 121–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harold, G. T., & Conger, R. D. (1997). Marital conflict and adolescent distress: The role of adolescent awareness. Child Development, 68, 333–350.Google ScholarPubMed
Hofstra, M. B., Van Der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2001). Adolescents' self-reported problems as predictors of psychopathology in adulthood: 10-year follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 203–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humbad, M. N., Donnellan, M. B., Iacono, W. G., & Burt, S. A. (2010). Externalizing psychopathology and marital adjustment in long-term marriages: Results from a large combined sample of married couples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 151–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S. (2009). Intergenerational transmission of risk for antisocial behaviour. In Tremblay, R. E., van Aken, M. A. G, & Koops, W. (Eds), Development and prevention of behaviour problems: From genes to social policy (pp. 165–180). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R. (2005). Family violence and parent psychopathology: Implications for children's socioemotional development and resilience. In Goldstein, S. & Brooks, R. (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children. New York: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., Belsky, J., Harrington, H., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). When parents have a history of conduct disorder: How is the caregiving environment affected? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 309–319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, J. M. (2002). Mechanisms in the development of emotional organization. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67, 116–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnston, J., & Roseby, V. (1997). In the name of the child: A developmental approach to understanding and helping children of conflicted and violent divorce. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Jouriles, E. N., & Farris, A. M. (1992). Effects of marital conflict on subsequent parent–son interactions. Behavior Therapy, 23, 355–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jouriles, E. N., Spiller, L. C., Stephens, N., McDonald, R., & Swank, P. (2000). Variability in adjustment of children of battered women: The role of child appraisals of interparent conflict. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 24, 233–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Development, 58, 1459–1473.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, L. F. (2001). Physiological processes and mediators of the impact of marital conflict on children. In Grych, J. H. & Fincham, F. D. (Eds.), Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 188–212). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. S. (2003). Starting at the beginning: Identifying etiological factors for antisocial behavior in the first years of life. In Lahey, B. B., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (Eds.), The causes of conduct disorder and serious delinquency (pp. 153–181). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Keller, T. E., Spieker, S. J., & Gilchrist, L. (2005). Patterns of risk and trajectories of preschool problem behaviors: A person-oriented analysis of attachment in context. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 349–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kerig, P. K. (1995). Triangles in the family circle: Effects of family structure on marriage, parenting, and child adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 9, 28–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerig, P. K. (1996). Assessing the links between interparental conflict and child adjustment: The conflicts and problem-solving scales. Journal of Family Psychology, 10, 454–473.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, D. W., King, L. A., McArdle, J. J., Shalev, A. Y., & Doron-LaMarca, S. (2009). Sequential temporal dependencies in associations between symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder: An application of bivariate latent difference score structural equation modeling. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44, 437–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitzmann, K. M. (2000). Effects of marital conflict on subsequent triadic family interactions and parenting. Developmental Psychology, 36, 3–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitzmann, K. M., Gaylord, N. K., Holt, A. R., & Kenny, E. D. (2003). Child witnesses to DV: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 339–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Hartdagen, S. E., Frick, P. J., McBurnett, K., Connor, R., & Hynd, G. W. (1988). Conduct disorder: Parsing the confounded relation to parental divorce and antisocial personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 334–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Hart, E. L., Frick, P. J., Applegate, B., Zhang, Q., et al. (1995). Four-year longitudinal study of conduct disorder in boys: Patterns and predictors of persistence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 83–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levendosky, A. A., Huth-Bocks, A. C., Shapiro, D. L., & Semel, M. A. (2003). The impact of domestic violence on the maternal–child relationship and preschool-age children's functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 275–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levendosky, A. A., Leahy, K. L., Bogat, G. A., Davidson, W. S., & von Eye, A. (2006). Domestic violence, maternal parenting, maternal mental health, and infant externalizing behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 544–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., Ouellet-Morin, I., Hupbach, A., Tu, M. T., Buss, C., Walker, D., et al. (2006). Beyond the stress concept: Allostatic load—A developmental biological and cognitive perspective. In Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 578–628). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R., & Henry, B. (2001). The role of neuropsychological deficits in conduct disorders. In Hill, J. & Maughan, B. (Eds.), Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence (pp. 235–263). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E., & Martin, J. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family. In Mussen, P. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 1–101). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magdol, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Silva, P. A. (1998). Developmental antecedents of partner abuse: A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 375–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maikovich, A. K., Jaffee, S. R., Odgers, C. L., & Gallop, R. (2008). Effects of family violence on psychopathology symptoms in children previously exposed to maltreatment. Child Development, 79, 1498–1512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolin, G. (2005). Children's exposure to violence: Exploring developmental pathways to diverse outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 72–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolin, G., & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 445–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Margolin, G., & Vickerman, K. A. (2007). Post-traumatic stress in children and adolescents exposed to family violence. I. Overview and issues. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38, 613–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McArdle, J. J. (2009). Latent variable modeling of differences and changes with longitudinal data. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 577–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonald, R., Jouriles, E. N., Briggs-Gowan, M., Rosenfield, D., & Carter, A. (2007). Violence toward a family member, angry adult conflict, and child adjustment difficulties: Relations in families with 1- to 3-year-old children. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 176–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, B. S., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1995). Stress and cognitive function. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5, 205–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2003). The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 2–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melby, J. N., & Conger, R. D. (2001). The Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales: Instrument summary. In Kerig, P. K. & Lindahl, K. M. (Eds.), Family observational coding systems: Resources for systemic research (pp. 33–58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Melchior, M., Caspi, A., Milne, C., Danese, A., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2007). Work stress precipitates depression and anxiety in young, working women and men. Psychological Medicine, 37, 1119–1129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Life-course-persistent versus adolescence-limited antisocial behavior. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 570–598). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Owens, E. B., & Shaw, D. S. (2003). Predicting growth curves of externalizing behavior across the preschool years. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 575–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfiffner, L. J., McBurnett, K., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Green, S., Frick, P. J., et al. (1999). Association of parental psychopathology to the comorbid disorders of boys with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 881–893.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pine, D., & Charney, D. (2002). Children, stress, and sensitization: An integration of basic and clinical research on emotion. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 773–775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, S. P., & Stifter, C. A. (2005). Behavioral approach-inhibition in toddlers: Prediction from infancy, positive and negative affective components, and relations with behavior problems. Child Development, 76, 212–226.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Lynam, D. (2005). Neurocognitive impairments in boys on the life-course persistent path. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 38–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Repetti, R. L., Robles, T. F., & Reynolds, B. (2011). Allostatic processes in the family. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 921–938.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330–366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhee, S. H., & Waldman, I. D. (2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 490–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Bucholz, K. K., Compton, W. M., North, C. S., & Rourke, K. (2000). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1984). Parental psychiatric disorder: Effects on children. Psychological Medicine, 14, 853–880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salimetrics, LLC. (2005). Expanded range (ER) HS-cortisol EIA kit. Unpublished manuscript, State College, PA.Google Scholar
Saltzman, K. M., Holden, G. W., & Holahan, C. J. (2005). The psychobiology of children exposed to marital violence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 129–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sbarra, D. A., & Allen, J. J. B. (2009). Decomposing depression: On the prospective and reciprocal dynamics of mood and sleep disturbances. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 171–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheeringa, M. S., & Zeanah, C. H. (1995). Symptom expression and trauma variables in children under 48 months of age. Infant Mental Health Journal, 16, 259–269.3.0.CO;2-T>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schofield, T. J., Conger, R. C., Martin, M. J., Stockdale, G. D., Conger, K. J., & Widaman, K. F. (2009). Reciprocity in parenting of adolescents within the context of marital negativity. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1708–1722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, C. A., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). Continuities in antisocial behavior and parenting across three generations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 230–247.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straus, M. A., Hambby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. S. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2). Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. (2012). Interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability and children's cortisol reactivity to family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 48, 237–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (2006a). Hostility and withdrawal in marital conflict: Effects on parental emotional unavailability and inconsistent discipline. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (2006b). The impact of interparental hostility and withdrawal on parental emotional unavailability and children's adjustment difficulties. Child Development, 77, 1623–1641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J. (2006). Psychobiology of persistent antisocial behavior: Stress, early vulnerabilities, and the attenuation hypothesis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 376–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J., Dockray, S., Schiefelbein, V. L., Herwehe, S., Heaton, J. A., & Dorn, L. D. (2007). Morningness/eveningness, morning-to-afternoon cortisol ratio, and antisocial behavior problems during puberty. Developmental Psychology, 43, 811–822.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L.S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Way, B. M., & Seeman, T. E. (2011). Early adversity and adult health outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 939–954.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornberry, T. P., Freeman-Gallant, A., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., & Smith, C. A. (2003). Linked lives: The intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 171–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Sturge-Apple, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2009). Maternal depression, children's attachment security, and representational development: An organizational perspective. Child Development, 80, 192–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Goozen, S. H., Fairchild, G., Snoek, H., & Harold, G. (2007). The evidence for a neurobiological model of childhood antisocial behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 149–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, D., & Pennebaker, J. W. (1989). Health complaints, stress, and distress: Exploring the central role of negative affectivity. Psychological Review, 96, 234–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Webster-Stratton, C., & Hammond, M. (1999). Marital conflict management skills, parenting style, and early-onset conduct problems: Processes and pathways. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 917–927.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, H. R., & Widom, C. S. (2003). Intimate partner violence among abused and neglected children in young adulthood: The mediating effects of early aggression, antisocial personality, hostility, and alcohol problems. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 332–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar